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SAN  0IE6O 


COURSES  OF  READING  AND  STUDY 


COURSES 

OF 

READING  AND  STUDY 


IN  THE 


NEW  INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


EDITORS: 

DANIEL  COIT  GILMAN,  LL.D. 

HARRY  THURSTON  PECK,  Ph.D.,  L.H.D. 

FRANK  MOORE  COLBY,  M.A. 


NEW   YORK 
DODD,  MEAD  &  COMPANY 

1905 


Copyright,  1904, 

BY 

DoDD,  Mead  &  Company 


Prksswork  bv 
Tub  Univfusitv  Pkbss,  Cambridcb,  U.  S.  A 


preface 


THE  purpose  of  the  present  volume,  as  its  name  suggests,  is  to  offer  help- 
towards  self-instruction  in  the  various  arts  and  sciences,  utilizing  the- 
New  International  Encychpadia  as  a  general  text-book.  There  is  little- 
need  to  emphasize  in  this  place  the  role  of  popular  educator  played  by 
a  work  like  the  Encyclopa-dia.  This  has  been  long  recognized ;  and,  from  a  mere 
work  of  reference  consulted  at  odd  moments  for  fragments  of  information,  the 
modern  Encyclopaedia  has  become  in  thousands  of  homes  a  source  of  common 
culture,  the  basis  of  a  thorough  training  in  the  principles  and  facts  of  History, 
Law,  Literature,  the  Fine  Arts,  Religion,  Biology,  Engineering,  Physics,  Chemistry, 
or  Agriculture.  Especially  where  access  to  large  libraries  is  difficult  or  impossible, 
its  value  is  apparent.  In  every  department  of  human  knowledge,  it  speaks  with  a 
copiousness  unequalled  in  the  average  text-book  and  a  degree  of  authority  attain- 
able only  when  every  department,  and  subdivision  of  a  department,  is  covered  by 
an  acknowledged  specialist  in  the  field. 

A  glance  at  any  chapter  in  the  book  will  show  the  method  pursued.  The  aim 
has  been  to  make  every  chapter  a  complete  summary  of  the  subject  with  which  it 
deals  by  arranging  the  material  as  the  reader  or  student  would  find  it  arranged  in 
a  systematic  treatise  on  the  subject.  The  amount  of  text  in  each  chapter  has 
necessarily  been  reduced  to  a  minimum,  only  so  much  being  given  as  is  essential  to 
trace  the  connection  between  the  successive  groups  of  titles.  But,  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  every  title  in  every  group  represents  from  two  or  three  hundred  to 
fifteen  thousand  words  of  text,  the  completeness  of  treatment  will  be  realized. 

Within  the  chapter  the  material  has  been  divided  and  subdivided  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  facilitate  study  on  special  topics.  If  the  reader,  for  instance,  desii-es 
to  make  himself  particularly  well  acquainted  with  a  cei-tain  period  in  American 
History,  he  need  but  turn  to  the  proper  section  in  Chapter  I.,  where  the  subject  of 
American  Histoi-y  is  outlined  in  five  sub-headings  with  as  many  groups  of  titles ; 
and  at  the  end  of  the  section  on  American  History  he  will  find  a  list  of  authorities 
in  whose  works  he  may  carry  on  supplementary  reading  to  any  extent.  In  the 
same  manner,  a  person  interested  in  the  ceremonial  or  hymnology  or  clerical  vest- 
ments of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  will  find  these  topics  treated  in  related 
groups  of  titles  as  a  section  in  the  chapter  on  Religion.  Under  Chemistry  one 
may  study  the  entire  subject,  carefully  outlined  for  such  a  purpose,  or  may  con- 
centrate on  the  acids  or  the  salts  or  the  fats.  In  every  chapter,  the  technical 
exposition  is  supplemented  by  comprehensive  lists  of  biography  wherein  the  histori- 
cal aspect  of  the  subject  finds  complete  treatment. 

In  quoting  titles  in  the  lists,  the  form  given  is  that,  of  course,  which  appears 
in  the  Encyclopaedia;  as.  Cruelty  to  Children,  PREVENTroN  of;  or,  MACHiXEKy, 
Economic  Effects  of.  Where  reference  is  made  to  a  long  article,  the  particular 
section  is  indicated;  as,  "See  section  The  Renaissance  under  Sculiture,'"  in  which 
case,  the  reader  will  turn  to  Sculpture  in  the  Encyclopaedia.     In  the  biographical 


iv  PREFACE 


titles,  the  full  Christian  name,  or  the  corresponding  initials,  is  given  as  a  rule;  as 
Adams,  Samuel  ;  Adams,  H.,  Kipling.  The  alphabetic  arrangement  of  titles  in 
the  Encyclopadia  makes  reference  to  volume  and  page  obviously  superfluous. 

It  is  in  its  orderly  marshalling  of  the  material  contained  in  the  Encyclopaedia 
that  we  believe  the  value  of  this  book  consists.  It  is  quite  unlikely  that  the 
average  reader,  left  to  his  own  guidance,  will  plan  his  course  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  produce  the  fullest  results  with  the  least  waste  of  time.  Where  the  subject  is 
unfamiliar,  he  is  as  apt  at  the  start  to  hit  upon  the  middle  of  it  as  upon  the 
beginning,  and,  in  passing  from  article  to  article,  there  is  always  the  danger  of 
his  missing  the  logical  sequence  of  topics.  A  mere  index  would  here  be  useless. 
What  is  necessary  is  a  carefully  planned  outline  that  shall  lead  the  reader,  step  by 
step,  from  elementary  principles  to  the  most  specialized  treatment.  Such  a  guide 
this  Outline  aims  to  be. 

The  preparation  of  this  volume,  cairied  on  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Editors,  has  been  in  the  direct  charge  of  Mr.  Simeox  SxHUNsici',  of  the  staff  of 
the  New  Intematkmal  Eiicyclopwdia. 

—The  Editoks. 


Contents! 


chapter  page 

1.  History 1 

2.  Law  and  Political  Science 40 

3.  The  Social  Sciences 53 

4.  Anthropology 62 

5.  Religion 68 

6.  Education 85 

7.  Philosophy  and  Psychology 90 

8.  Language  and   Literature 99 

9.  The   Fine   Arts — Architecture 122 

10.  The  Fine  Arts — Sculpture  and  Painting 132 

11.  The  Minor  Arts 144 

12.  Music 148 

13.  JNIathematics 154 

14.  Astronomy 159 

15.  Physics       ^ 163 

16.  Chemistry       170 

17.  Geology 178 

18.  Meteorology 189 

19.  Geography 192 

20.  Botany 196 

21.  Agriculture^  Horticulture,  and  Forestry     ....  211 

22.  Zoology 220 

23.  INIanufactures  and  Engineering 232 

24.  Military  and  Naval  Science 246 

25.  Medicine 260 

26.  Games  and  Sports 274 


Qlljapt^r  L    l^fetnrg 


HISTORY,  which  we  may  define  as  the  record  of  man's  life  on  earth 
and  the  sum  of  his  acliicvcments,  would  include  in  its  hroadest 
aspect  the  entire  story  of  human  development  from  Pala;olithic 
man  to  the  present  day.  As  a  matter  of  convenience,  however, 
in  this  book  we  shall  leave  the  beginnings  of  associated  human 
life  to  be  treated  under  the  heading  of  Anthropology  and  Ethnology,  where,  too, 
will  be  found  the  material  for  the  stories  of  those  peoples  and  tribes  which  to  the 
present  day  have  remained  without  the  pale  of  our  civilization.  Here  we  shall 
take  up  the  narrative  at  a  point  in  time  when  we  first  catch  a  glimpse  of  the 
nations  whose  culture,  evolved  during  thousands  of  years,  and  passed  on  from 
hand  to  hand,  has  become  the  heritage  of  the  present  day.  The  traditional 
division  into  Ancient,  Mediaeval,  and  Modern  history  is  followed,  and  in 
accordance  with  custom  the  account  begins  with  the  nations  of  the  Mesopotamian 
region,  and  passes  on  through  Persia  and  the  empire  of  Alexander  into  Rome, 
where  also  the  course  of  Egyptian,  Jewish,  Phoenician,  and  Greek  history,  taken 
up  in  turn,  leads  us.  With  Rome,  Ancient  liistory  ends.  India,  China,  and 
Japan,  though  their  history  goes  back  to  a  past  coeval  with  the  period  we  call 
ancient,  are  treated  apart  because  of  their  far  less  intimate  connection  with  the 
civilization  of  Europe,  wherein  our  interest  is  centered.  Medieval  history  takes 
up  the  story  at  the  fall  of  Rome,  traces  the  amalgamation  of  the  old  world  with 
the  new,  the  growth  of  the  Church,  the  rise  of  States,  and  the  transition,  through 
inward  development  and  outward  contact  with  Asia  and  America,  to  modern 
times.  There  European  history  becomes  largely  the  story  of  nations  and  their 
conflicts.  One  by  one  due  treatment  is  accorded  them,  the  field  widening  as 
Australia,  Africa,  and  Asia  come  within  the  scope  of  European  interests.  The 
record  ends  with  a  section  on  the  history  of  the  United  States  outlined  with 
greater  detail  than  the  account  of  other  lands. 

First  some  conception  of  the  methodology  of  historical  writing  and  a  bird's 
■eye  view  of  the  history  of  the  world  may  be  useful,  for  which  see : 


History  Africa 

Asia  America 

Europe  Australia 


A.   Aumnt  l^tatnrg 


1.  Babylonia,     Chald.«a,     and     As-  the  history  of  a  Semitic  nation,  builders 

SYRIA.  of  cities,  the  possessors  of  a  great  lit- 

Archasological    research   has   carried  erature  in  clay,  learned  in  mathematics 

back  the  origins  of  Babylonian  civiliza-  and   the   heavens.     Babylonia    became 

tion  to  a  period  antedating  the  fifth  subject  to  a  ruder  nation  of  the  north, 

millenium  b.  c,  and  has  reconstructed  Assj'ria,  which  borrowed  its  civilization, 


HISTORY 


established  a  world  empire,  and  made 
way  for  Chaldaea,  in  turn  to  be  suc- 
ceeded by  a  Neo-Babylonian  kingdom, 
in  turn  to  be  succeeded  by  Persia 
(?—  B.  c.  538)     See: 

(a)  For  the  Land: 

Mesopotamia 

Euphrates 

Tigris 

Babylonia 

Assyria 

Accad 

Shinar 

Elam 

(b)  For  the  Cities: 

Nippur 

Babylon 

Calah 

Nineveh 

Ur 

Erech 

Khorsabad 

(c)  For  the  Kings: 

Sargon  I 

Hammurabi 

Shalmaneser  I 

Tiglath-pilcser  I 

Asurnazirpal 

Shalmaneser  II 

Tiglatli-pilcscr  III 

Sargon  II 

Sennacherib 

Esarliaddon 

Sardanapahis 

Nabonassar 

Nabopolassar 

Nebuchadnezzar 

Belshazzar 

Cyrus 

(d)  For    the    People,    Religion,    and 

Language: 

Sumcrian  Language 


Chaldseans 

Chaldians 

Kassites 

Baal 

Merodach 

Ishtar 

Semitic  Languages 

Babylonian  Art 

Assyrian  Art 

Cuneiform  Inscriptions 

(f)   For   the   Historians    and   Investi- 
gators : 

Botta,  P.  E. 
Hilprecht,  H.  V. 
Layard,  A.  H. 
Oppcrt,  J. 
Place,  V.       • 
Rawlinson,  G. 
Rawlinson,  H.  C. 
Rassam,  H. 
Sacy, A.  I. 
Smith,  G. 

2.  Egypt. 

From  Babylonia  it  is  possible  that 
civilization  may  have  passed  into 
Egypt,  though  the  monuments  may  be 
taken  to  assign  as  e.irly  an  antiquity 
to  the  Egyptian  civilization  as  to  the 
Babylonian.  From  primitive  times 
when  the  land  was  divided  into  two 
sections,  the  Delta  and  the  South,  we 
pass  through  many  shadowy  dynasties 
of  temple-building  kings  to  a  time  of 
subjugation  by  foreign  invaders,  of 
conquests  in  Palestine  and  Asia  IMinor, 
of  decline,  and  of  reduction  by  the 
Persians,  by  Alexander  of  Macedon, 
and  by  Rome.  A  cheerful  people,  in- 
fluenced greatly  by  their  })ricsts,  sub- 
missive to  their  kings,  worshiping 
many  gods  and  animals,  they  left  be- 
hind them  massive  structures  of  which 
we   have    not    yet   the    secret.     Their 


HISTORY 


priests  read  tlie  stars  and  knew 
geometry,  speculated  on  the  soul,  and 
probably  passed  on  to  the  Phoenicians 
the  alphabet  which  was  to  be  ours. 
(?— B.  c.  30)     See: 

(a)  For  the  Land: 

Egypt 

Nile 

Delta 

Nubia 

Ethiopia 

Libya 

Suez  Canal 

(b)  For  the  Cities  and  Monuments: 

Memphis 

Tanis 

Thebes 

Karnak 

Luxor 

Ramesseum 

Pyramid 

Rosctta  Stone 

(c)  For  the  Kings: 

Menes 

Cheops 

Chephren 

Amenemhat 

Usei-tesen 

Amasis 

Amcnophis 

Thothmes 

Hatasu 

Rameses 

Psammetichus 

Necho 

Amasis  II 

Ptolemy 

Cleopatra 

(d)  For   the    People,    Religion,   Lan- 

guage, and  Culture: 
Egypt 
Hamites 


Hyksos 

Re 

Horns 

Osiris 
Thoth 
Athor 
Ammon 
Apis 
Set 
Isis 

Nephthys 
Anubis 

Hieroglyphics 
Egyptian  Art 
Egyptian  Music 
{e)   For   the   Historians    and    Investi- 
gators : 
Egyptology 
Brugsch,  H.  K. 
Champollion,  J.  F. 
Lenormant,  C. 
Lepsius,  K.  R. 
Manetho 
Mariette,  A.  E. 
Maspcro,  G.  C.  C. 
Naville,  E.  H. 
Petrie,  W.  M.  F. 
Poole,  R.  S. 
Renouf,  P. 
Rouge,  O.  C.  E. 
Sayce,  A.  H. 
Wilkinson,  J.  G. 

3.  Phcenicia  and  Asia  Minor. 

What  is  now  Syria  and  part  of  Asia 
Minor  was  in  the  earliest  times  debat- 
able ground  between  Egypt  and  the 
Mesopotamian  monarchies.  On  the 
Palestinian  coast  the  Phoenicians,  with 
little  territory,  developed  a  splendid  in- 
dustry and  commerce  and  in  their  ships 
carried  the  seeds  of  Babylonian  and 
Egyptian  civilization  over  the  Medi- 
terranean    basin.      Later,     wlien     the 


HISTORY 


Phoenicians  were  in  their  dechne,  a 
people  known  as  the  Hittites  appear, 
stout  fighters  who  render  a  good  ac- 
count of  themselves  against  the  Assyr- 
ians and  Egyptians.  Their  homes 
were  in  Nortliern  Syria  and  in  Eastern 
Asia  Minor,  but  about  b.  c.  700  they 
disappeared,  leaving  little  trace  beliind 
tliem.      See : 

(a)  For  the  Phoenicians: 

Phoenicia 

Sidon 

Tyre 

Acre 

Byblos 

Cyprus 

Crete 

Carthage 

Hiram 

Melkarth 

Astarte 

Phoenician  Art 

Phoenician  Language 

Amarna  Letters 

(b)  For  the  Hittites: 

Hittites 

Syria 

Lycia 

Plirygia 

Cappadocia 

Carchemish 

Marash 

Hamath 

4.  The  Jews. 

The  Jews  form  the  third  in  the 
group  of  peoples  lying  between  P^^gypt 
and  Babylonia  and  affected  by  the  in- 
fluence of  both.  The  Plebrows,  a 
Semitic  tribe  of  nomads,  possibly  of 
Aramasan  stock,  after  wandering 
through  the  land  of  Canaan,  enter 
Egypt,  arc  there  held  in  bondage,  and, 


hammered  into  a  nation  by  persecution, 
escape,  conquering  for  themselves  the 
land  of  Canaan  and  passing  thereby 
from  the  nomad  into  the  agricultural 
stage.      See : 

Jews 

Palestine 

Semitic  Languages 

Abraham 

Isaac 

Jacob 

Esau 

Amarna  Letters 

Exodus 

Moses 

Aaron 

Joshua 

Canaan 

Simeon 

Judah 

Levi 

Gad 

Naphtali 

Issachar 

Dan 

Zebulun 

Ephraim 

Benjamin 

Ruled  by  warrior  leaders  for  a  long 
period,  the  people  finally  obtain  a  king, 
but  after  a  hundred  years  the  nation 
breaks  into  two,  the  northern,  Israel, 
falling  to  Assyria,  the  southern,  Judah, 
150  years  later  to  Babylonia.  The 
Babylonian  exiles  return  and  re- 
establish the  Jewish  state  in  the  form 
of  a  theocracy  based  on  a  purified 
Yahwch  worship.     See: 

Jews 

Saul 

David 

Jerusalem 

Solomon 


HISTORY 


Judah 

Jeroboam 

Joash 

Abimclcch 

Jehosaphat 

Ahab 

Josiah 

Hezekiah 

Samaritans 

Babylonia 

Nehemiah 

Ezra 

Cyrus 

Philistines 

Ammon 

Moab 

Edom 

Galilee 

Judges,  Book  of 

Chronicles 

Kings,  Book  of 

The  reestablished  State  passes  from 
the  suzerainty  of  Persia  to  that 
of  Macedonia,  the  Seleucid  kings  of 
Syria,  and  Rome,  rising  against  whom, 
Jerusalem  is  taken  (a.  d.  70),  the 
Temple  destroyed,  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  nation  scattered  over  the  Roman 
world.  The  insurrection  of  Bar- 
Cochba  in  the  second  century  is  the  last 
forcible  assertion  of  the  national  spirit. 
The  Jews  now  enter  upon  their  historic 
role  of  wanderers,  subject  alternately 
to  persecution  and  favor  at  the  hands 
of  rulers  and  peoples,  and  held  together 
as  a  folk  by  the  Law  and  the  Talmud. 
See: 

(o)   Jews 

Babylonish  Captivity 

Antiochus 

Maccabees 

Herod 

Sadducees 


Pharisees 

Zealot 

Titus 

Messiah 

Bar-Cochba 

Spain 

Crusades 

Russia 

Anti-Semitism 

Zionist  Movement 

(b)  For  the  Law,  Language,  Litera- 

ture, and  Science: 
Bible 
Talmud 
Gemara 
Mishna 
Cabbala 
Halacha 
Haggada 
Midrash 
Maimonides 
Zoar 
Yiddish 

(c)  For  the  Historians: 

Ewald,  G.  H. 
Graetz,  H. 
Josephus,  Flavius 
Milman,  H.  H. 

5.  Persia. 

In  northeastern  Iran,  a  people,  the 
Medians,  shake  off  the  yoke  of  Assyria 
in  the  eighth  century  b.  c.  and  soon 
attain  power  over  their  former  masters, 
but  fall  themselves  under  the  domi- 
nation of  the  Persians  and  Cyrus,  who 
brings  under  his  sway  all  of  Meso- 
potamia and  Palestine.  Under  his 
successors  Persia  becomes  the  greatest 
empire  of  pre-Alexandrian  times, 
spreads  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  enters 
Egypt,  but  fights  vainly  against  the 
Greeks  and  is  conquered  by  the  young 


HISTORY 


hero  of  Macedon.  The  empire  falls 
apart,  the  heart  of  it,  Persia  proper, 
passing  in  turn  to  the  Parthians,  Arabs, 
Turks,  Mongols,  and  Turks  again,  till 
it  remains  what  it  is  at  the  present  day, 
a  piece  in  the  game  between  England 
and  Russia  in  Asia.     See : 

(a)  For  the  Land  and  the  People: 

Iran 

Media 

Persia 

Asia  Minor 

Bactria 

Parthia 

Armenia 

Susa 

Perscpolis 

Ctesiphon 

Ecbatana 

(b)  For  the  Dynasties  and  Kings: 

Achaemenidae 

Seleucidae 

Arsacidae 

Sassanidae 

Abbasides 

Samani  and  Dilemi 

Ghaznevides 

Ghuri 

Scljuks 

Ast^'ages 

Cyrus 

Cambyscs 

Darius 

Xerxes 

Artaxcrxes 

Khosru 

Hulaku  Khan 

Timur 

Abbas  i. 

Nadir  Sli.-ili 

(c)  For  the  Cullure: 

Persian  Art 


Persian  Language 
Persian  Literature 

6.  Greece. 

The  seeds  of  culture  from  Babylon, 
Egypt,  and  Asia  Minor,  brought  to 
Greece  by  the  Phoenicians,  developed 
there  into  a  new  civilization,  the 
highest  in  many  respects  the  world  has 
as  yet  seen,  European,  and  influencing 
mightily  the  history  of  future  ages. 
The  legendary  accounts  reflect  probable 
historical  conditions  in  the  tales  of 
heroes  and  gods.     See: 

Mj'thology 

Danaiis 

Cadmus 

Hercules 

Theseus 

Jason 

Argonauts 

Trojan  War 

Agamemnon 

Ulysses 

Achilles 

Greek  history  begins  with  a  succes- 
sion of  great  migrations  from  the  main- 
land eastward  towards  Asia  Minor. 
When  authentic  history  begins,  Greece 
appears  as  an  agglomeration  of  small 
independent  states,  in  a  state  of  transi- 
tion from  the  monarchical  form  of  gov- 
ernment into  tyrannies,  oligarchies,  and 
democracies.      Sec : 

(o)   For  the  Land: 
Greece 
/Egean  Sea 
Asia  Minor 
Thcssaly 
Boeotia 
Epirus 
Attica 
Peloponnesus 


HISTORY 


Euboea 

Lesbos 

Chios 

Ithaca 

Pydnus 

Olympus 

Delos 

(b)  For  the  Cities: 

Athens 

Sparta 

Thebes 

Argos 

Corinth 

(c)  For  the  People: 

Pelasgians 

Hellenes 

Danal 

Dorians 

lonians 

Cohans 

Achaeans 

(d)  For  the  Men: 

Lycurgus 
Solon 
Pisistratus 
Clisthcnes 

The  Greeks  come  into  conflict  with 
Persia,  and  a  long  successful  struggle 
against  that  power  brings  national 
greatness.  Democratic  Athens  first 
takes  the  lead  among  the  Greek  city 
states  and  for  a  half  century  plays  a 
brilliant  part,  then  succumbs  to  Sparta, 
which  in  turn  falls  before  Thebes. 
Disunion  brings  Greece  under  the 
sway  of  Macedon,  whose  young  king 
conquers  Persia  and  Egypt  and 
spreads  tlie  Hellenic  culture  in  his  new 
realm.  Greece  proper,  sinking  in  po- 
litical importance,  is  ruled  by  Macedon 
till  it  falls  with  Macedon  into  the 
power  of  Rome.     See: 


Greece 

Athens 

Miltiades 

Marathon 

Thcmistocles 

Salamis 

Thermopylae 

Aristides 

Lconidas 

Ephialtes 

Pericles 

Conon 

Nicias 

Sparta 

Lysander 

Agesilaus 

Antalcidas 

Pausanias 

Thebes 

Epaminondas 

Pclopidas 

Mantinea 

Leuctra 

Macedon 

Philip  n 

Demosthenes 

^schinos 

Alexander  the  Great 

Chsronea 

Antipater 

Demetrius  Poliorcetes 

/Etolian  League 

Achajan  League 

PhilopcEmen 

Pydna 

Cynoscephalse 

In  the  Greek  city  states  the  problems 
of  democracy  were  well  worked  out,  and 
politics  became  an  exact  science.  The 
principles  of  democracy  were  carried 
over  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  Black  Sea,  wherever  the  Greeks, 
the  successors  of  the  Phoenicians  as 
traders  and  colonizers,  went.      See: 


HISTORY 


(a)  For  Greek  Government: 

Monarchy 

Tyrant 

Democracy 

Aristocracy 

Despot 

Ecclesia 

Areopagus 

Ostracism 

Boule 

Ephori 

Archon 

(b)  For  the  Greek  Colonies: 

Ionia 

jMitylene 

Ephesus 

Halicarnassus 

Chalcidice 

Colchis 

Chersonesus 

Cyrene 

Sicily 

Magna  Gra;cia 

Marseilles 

Over  all  the  Greek  world  the  Hellenic 
culture  prevailed  as  in  the  home  coun- 
try.    See : 

Greek  Language 
Greek  Literature 
Greek  Music 
Greek  Art 
Greek  Philosophy 

The  Greek  religion  passed  from  an 
unrestrained  polytheism  into  an  antici- 
pation of  monotheism  on  the  part  of  the 
select  few,  into  gross  superstition  on 
the  part  of  the  many.  In  its  ideals  of 
life  Greek  morality  presented  a  vivid 
contrast  to  the  later  Christian  teach- 
ings.    See: 

Olympus 
Pantlieon 


Jupiter 

Juno 

Apollo 

Mercury 

Vulcan 

Ceres 

Venus 

Diana 

Mars 

IMinerva 

Neptune 

Pluto 

Greek  Religion 

Greek  Festivals 

Games 

Olympic  Games 

Mysteries 

HetieriE 

For  the  Historians: 
Herodotus 
Thucydides 
Xenophon 
Plutarch 
Polybius 
Dio  Cassius 

Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus 
Arrianus 
Theopompus 
Curtius,  E. 
Finlay,  G. 
Grote,  G. 
]\Iahaffy,  J.  P. 
Schliemann,  H. 

7.  Rome. 

Greek  civilization  was  imposed  on  the 
peoples  of  Europe,  Northern  Africa, 
and  Western  Asia  by  the  armies  of 
Rome,  whose  origin  goes  back  to  a 
settlement  of  Latin  outlaws  and  shep- 
herds on  one  of  the  seven  hills  south  of 
the  Tiber.  A  legendary  kingdom 
gives  way,  about  tlie  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century    i).   c,   to   a   republican 


HISTORY 


9 


form  of  government.  A  long  contest 
between  privileged  and  non-privileged 
classes  results  in  the  elaboration  of  a 
splendidly  efficient  system  of  municipal 
government.     See : 

(a)   For  the  Land  and  the  People: 
Rome 
Italy 
Latium 

Italic  Languages 
Latini 
Etruria 
Samnites 

{b)   For  the  Cities: 
Rome 

Alba  Longa 
Vcii 

Tarentum 
Capua 
Naples 
Brindisi 
Pompeii 
Herculaneum 

(c)   For  the  Kingship  and  the  Strug- 
gle between  Classes : 
Romulus 
Numa  Pompilius 
Tarquinius 
Comitia 
Patrician 
Plebeians 
Consul 
Tribune 
Prsetor 
Censor 
JEdiles 
Decemviri 

Appius  Claudius  Crassus 
Hortensius 
Licinian  Rogations 

With  her  internal  problems  settled, 
Rome  enters  upon  a  career  of  foreign 


conquest  and  by  means  of  her  splendid 
military  art  and  unscrupulous  diplom- 
acy makes  herself  mistress  of  Latium, 
of  Italy,  and,  after  a  struggle  with 
Carthage,  with  Macedonia,  and  with 
Sj'ria,  of  the  Mediterranean  basin. 
Unchecked  power,  however,  brings  cor- 
ruption within  the  State,  republican 
institutions  tend  to  become  empty 
forms,  factional  strife  breaks  out,  the 
Senate  rules  for  a  while  and  then  suc- 
cumbs to  the  ambition  of  masterful 
politicians ;  in  the  conflict  of  parties  the 
Republic  meets  its  end.     See: 

Gaul 

Camillus 

Pyrrhus 

Carthage 

Punic  Wars 

Hamilcar 

Hasdrubal 

Hannibal 

Hispania 

CanniE 

Zama 

Scipio 

Macedonia 

Antiochus 

Gracchus 

Agrarian  Law 

Jugurtha 

Marius 

Sulla 

Pompeius 

Mithridates 

Cicero 

Catiline 

Cffisar 

Cassius 

Brutus 

Crassus 

Antonius 

Cleopatra 

Actium 


10 


HISTORY 


The  Roman  Empire,  establislied  by 
Augustus  before  the  beginning  of  the 
present  era,  attained  its  greatest  ex- 
tent in  the  early  years  of  the  second 
century  of  that  era  and  entered  on  its 
decline  towards  the  end  of  the  same 
century.  At  its  height  it  embraced 
within  its  limits  the  classic  world. 
Peace,  excellent  means  of  communica- 
tion, and  an  unrivalled  administrative 
system  brought  the  different  parts  of 
the  Empire  close  together  and  facili- 
tated the  spread  of  Greek  culture  and 
later  of  Christianity.  The  decline  of 
the  Empire,  due  to  the  decay  of  old 
age  and  the  onset  of  the  barbarian 
tribes  of  Northern  Europe,  is  arrested 
by  the  reforms  of  Diocletian  and  of  his 
successor  Constantine  the  Great,  who, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century, 
makes  Christianity  the  State  religion. 
See: 

Augustus 

Tiberius 

Caligula 

Claudius 

Nero 

Vespasian 

Titus 

Domitian 

Trajan 

Hadrian 

Antoninus  Pius 

Aurelius 

Commodus 

Severus,  Scptimius 

Caracalla 

Severus,  Alexander 

Aurcllanus 

Diocletian 

Praetorian  Guard 

Constantine  the  Great 

Christianity 

After  Constantine  tlic  decline  is  pre- 


cipitate. The  ancient  Roman  prowess 
is  gone,  and  the  defence  of  the  Empire 
is  entrusted  to  barbarian  mercenaries; 
the  task  of  government  becomes  too 
iieavy  for  one  man,  and  the  Empire  is 
divided  in  two.  The  wave  of  barbarian 
migration  breaks  with  full  force  upon 
the  Western  Empire,  and  the  last  em- 
peror of  Latin  Rome  is  dethroned  in 
476.     See: 

Migration 

Parthia 

Julian 

Theodosius  * 

Stilicho 

Alaric 

Attila 

Huns 

Goths 

Vandals 

Burgundians 

Odoaccr 

Ravenna 

Honorius 

Augustulus 

Aetius 

The  Romans  were  preeminent  for 
their  political  genius ;  their  literature, 
philosophy,  and  art  were  copies  of  the 
Greek,  and  the  general  culture  at  the 
time  of  the  Empire's  zenith  was  Hellen- 
istic ;  their  gods,  too,  were  largely  bor- 
rowed or  adapted  from  the  Greek 
pantheon ;  but  in  administration  and 
law  they  were  unexampled  innovators 
and  in  these  fields  they  influenced  sub- 
sequent European  civilization  mightily. 
See: 

(a)  For  the  Religion: 
Roman  Religion 
Jupiter 
Janus 
Mars 


HISTORY 


11 


Quirinus 

Vesta 

Auguries 

riamens 

Lupercalia 

Salii 

(6)   For  the  Language  and  Culture: 
Italic  Languages 
Latin  Language 
Latin  Literature 
Roman  Art 
Philosophy 

(c)   For  Administration  and  Law: 
Civil  Law 
Justinian 
Twelve  Tables 
Jus  Gentium 
Municipality 


Papinianus 

Paulus 

Pandects 

(d)   For  the  Historians: 

Ammianus  Marcellinus 

Appianus 

Duruy,  V. 

Eutropius 

Gibbon, E. 

Ihne,  W. 

Lanciani,  R. 

Livy 

Merivale,  C. 

Mommsen,  T. 

Niebuhr,  B.  G.        | 

Sallust 

Suetonius 

Tacitus 


B,   iii^lita^ual  ^tstorg 


1.  The  East  Roman  or  Byzantine 
Empire  continued  to  exist  for  a 
thousand  years.  Within  the  limits  of 
the  Western  Empire  the  Germanic  tribes 
settled  as  masters,  and  from  their  grad- 
ual amalgamation  with  the  conquered 
Roman  provincials  date  the  beginnings 
of  the  modern  peoples  of  Europe. 
The  most  powerful  of  the  barbarian 
kingdoms,  that  of  the  Franks,  attained 
imperial  extension  under  Charles  the 
Great,  wlio,  by  his  alliance  with  the 
Pope,  established  the  connection  be- 
tween Empire  and  Church,  which  was 
to  become  one  of  the  most  powerful 
determinants  of  events  in  the  Middle 
Ages.      See : 

(o)   For  the  Migrations: 
Migration 


Britannia 

Angles 

Saxons 

Jutes 

Gaul 

Burgundians 

Franks 

Hispania 

Suevi 

Vandals 

Italy 

Goths 

Theodoric 

Lombards 

Saracens 

(b)   For  the  East  Roman  Empire: 

Byzantine  Empire 
Justinian 
Belisarius 
Narses 


12 


HISTORY 


(c)   For  the  Prankish  Empire : 

Clovis 

Merovingians 
Carolingians 
Brunhilda 
Fredegunda 
Charles  Martel 
Pepin  the  Short 
Donation  of  Pepin 
Charles  tlie  Great 
Papal  States 
Salic  Law 


2.  On  the  death  of  Charles  the  Great 
the  Prankish  Empire  falls  apart. 
Two  great  kingdoms  arise,  France  and 
Germany.  The  Germans  make  their 
power  supreme  in  Central  Europe  and 
in  Italy,  and  a  German  king  is  crowned 
Holy  Roman  Emperor,  reviving  the 
connection  between  Church  and  State 
established  by  Charles  the  Great.  A 
second  Teuton  stock,  the  Northmen,  ap- 
pear as  conquerors  in  France,  England, 
Italy,  and  Russia.  The  growth  of  na- 
tions proceeds  rapidly,  and  from  the 
relations  between  conqueror  and  con- 
quered develops  Feudalism.  The 
young  nations  are  brought  into  con- 
flict with  the  growing  power  of  the 
Church,  which,  under  the  leadership  of 
the  Bishop  of  Rome,  seeks  to  raise  the 
ecclesiastical  power  above  the  secular. 
The  break-up  of  the  MediiEval  ages  be- 
gins with  the  Crusades.      See: 

(a)   For  the  Growth  of  Nations: 
Franks 

Verdun,  Treaty  of 
France 
Neustria 
Germany 
Austrasia 
Franconia 
Swabia 


Alcmanni 

Otho  the  Great 

Holy  Roman  Empire 

Normans 

Normandy 

Varangians 

England 

William  the  Conqueror 

Italy 

Sicily 

Guiscard 

Russia 

(6)   For  Mediaeval  Society: 
Feudalism 
Feud 
Livery 
Homage 
Knight 
Chivalry 
Esquire 
Heraldry 
Serf 
Ordeal 

Truce  of  God 
Compurgation 

(c)   For  the  Struggle  between  Church 
and  State: 

Gregory  VII 

Investiture 

Hohenstaufcn 

Guelphs  and  Ghibellines 

Henry  IV  of  Germany 

Henry  V  of  Germany 

Papacy 

Innocent  III 

Philip  II  of  France 

Philip  IV  of  France 

John  of  England 

Henry  II  of  England 

Frederick  I  Burbarossa 

Frederick  II  of  Germany 
((/)   For  the  Crusades: 

Crusades 


HISTORY 


13 


Papacy 

Hospitalers 

Templars 

Teutonic  Knights 

Peter  the  Hermit 

Urban  II 

Godfrey  de  Bouillon 

Bohemund 

Tancred 

Baldwin 

Antioch 

Richard  I  of  England 

Saladin 

Venice 

Dandolo 

Louis  IX  of  France 

Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem 

3.  The  Crusades  were  followed  by  a 
great  increase  in  the  commerce  of  West- 
ern Europe  and  the  rise  of  an  influen- 
tial burgher  class,  with  whose  aid  the 
kings  succeeded  in  making  themselves 
independent  of  the  feudal  nobility. 
With  the  growth  of  centralized  king- 
doms the  power  of  the  Papacy  declines. 
Contact  with  the  East  and  the  ancient 
world  stimulated  the  European  mind, 
and  the  Revival  of  Learning,  the  suc- 
cession of  great  geographical  and 
astronomical  discoveries,  and  the  inven- 
tion of  gunpoAvder  and  printing  hasten 
the  transition  from  the  jNIiddle  Ages  to 
modern  times.  The  uniformity  of 
European  society,  characteristic  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  is  broken  up  by  the 
Reformation.     See : 

(fl)   For    Commerce,    Discoveries,    and 
Inventions : 
Hanseatic  League 
Gunpowder 
Printing 
Copernicus 
Columbus 


Gama,  Vasco  da 
Venice 
Genoa 

Henry  the  Navigator 
Africa 
America 
{b)   For  the  Decline  of  the  Papacy : 
Boniface  VIII 
Avignon 
Schism,  Great 
Constance,  Council  of 
Basel,  Council  of 

(f)    For  the  Revival  of  Learning  and 
the  Renaissance: 
Petrarch 
Bracciolini 
Guarino 
Poliziano 

Lorenzo  de'  Medici 
Erasmus 
Colet 
Grocyn 
Linacre 
More,  Thomas 
Reuchlin 

Hutten,  Ulrich  von 
Epistolas  Obscurorum  Virorum 
Renaissance  Art 

(d)   For  the  Reformation : 
Reformation 
Wiclif 
Huss 
Luther 
Charles  V 

Augsburg  Confession 
Melanchthon 
Schmalkaldic  League 
Zwingli 
Calvin 
Huguenots 

Henry  Mil  of  England 
Wishart 
Knox 


14 


HISTORY 


Coun  ter-Ref  orniation 
Trent,  Council  of 
Thirty  Years'  War 
For  the  Historians: 

Creighton,  M. 

Denifle,  F.  H. 

Emerton,  E. 

Fisher,  G.  P. 


Fleury,  Claude 
Gieseler,  J.  K. 
Hallam,  H. 
Harnack,  Adolf 
Hefele,  K.  J. 
Lea,  H.  C. 
Neander,  J.  A. 
Pastor,  L. 


C.   Mvitnn  lltHtnr^ 


At  the  opening  of  the  modern  era  the 
process  of  State  formation  in  Europe 
had  resulted  in  the  establishment  of 
firmly  centralized  nations  in  England, 
France,  and  Spain.  Germany  and 
Italy,  on  the  contrary,  were  disunited, 
and  destined  so  to  remain  till  the  later 
years  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
conflicts  of  States  and  nationalities  is 
one  of  tlie  great  features  of  modern 
times;  till  16-18  religion  is  a  fruitful 
cause  of  external  warfare  and  civil 
strife;  after  1648  wars  are  fought  on 
political  and  commercial  grounds. 
The  disappearance  of  a  common  Church 
and  of  Latin  as  the  common  veliicle  of 
communication  among  the  higher 
classes  tended  to  intensify  the  differ- 
entiation of  national  characteristics. 
The  burgher  class,  which  had  begun  to 
assert  itself  in  the  period  after  the  Cru- 
sades, rose  to  full  recognition  in  the  life 
of  the  State  and  in  turn  was  forced  to 
render  recognition,  after  the  French 
Revolution,  to  the  lowest  classes  in  the 
State,  artisans  and  peasants.  The 
Church  loses  control  over  the  tem])ora] 
affairs  of  its  members,  and  even  in  the 
spiritual  field  its  authority  is  subor- 
dinated to  that  of  the  State.  Life  takes 
on  a  predominantly  secular  tinge ;  sci- 
ence broadens  the  intellectual  liorizon. 


and  conmierce  and  colonization  bring 
the  non-European  part  of  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere  within  the  sphere  of  Euro- 
pean influence.  The  history  of  modern 
times  is  best  studied  in  the  history  of 
the  various  nations. 

1.  England. 

The  Britannia  of  the  Romans  is 
overrun  in  the  age  of  migrations  by 
Teutonic  tribes  from  Jutland  and  the 
northwest  of  Germany,  who,  receiving 
a  new  infusion  of  kindred  blood  from 
the  Danes,  are  conquered  in  the  eleventh 
century  by  a  more  remote  kinsfolk,  the 
Normans — Gallicized  Teutons  from 
France.  Saxons  and  Normans  are 
blended  into  one  before  14<00,  by  which 
time  a  constitutional  system  of  govern- 
ment, worked  out  in  the  course  of  long 
conflicts  between  rulers  and  subjects,  is 
in  force,  based  on  tlie  supreme  legisla- 
tive authority  of  a  Parliament,  rcpre- 
si'nting  the  different  estates.  Wales 
and  Ireland  have  been  subdued,  and 
Scotland  has  ceased  to  be  a  dangerous 
rival.  Feudalism,  never  so  strong  in 
England  as  on  the  Continent,  is  prac- 
tically destroyed  during  the  Wars  of 
the  Roses  in  the  fifteeiitli  century,  and 
the  modern  era  may  be  dated  from  the 
accession  of  the  Tudors  in  1485.     See: 


HISTORY 


15 


England 

Britannia 

Anglo-Saxons 

Heptarchy 

Alfred 

Edward  the  Confessor 

Canute 

Harold 

Witcnagemot 

William  the  Conqueror 

Hastings,  Battle  of 

Hereward 

Domesday  Book 

William  II 

Henry  I 

Stephen 

Plantagenet 

Henry  II 

Becket 

Ireland 

English  Pale 

Richard  I 

John 

Magna  Charta 

Oxford,  Provisions  of 

Montfort,  Simon  de 

Edward  I 

Parliament 

Wales 

Llewellyn  ap  Griffith 

Scotland 

Wallace 

Bruce 

Bannockburn 

Edward  II 

Mortimer,  Roger  de 

Edward  III 

Hundred  Years'  War 

Crecy 

Poitiers 

Black  Death 

Richard  II 

Tyler's  Rebellion 

Ball,  John 


Wiclif 

Provisors,  Statute  of 

Pra'inunirc 

Mortmain,  Statutes  of 

Lancaster,  House  of 

Henry  IV 

Agincourt 

Henry  VI 

York,  House  of 

Margaret  of  Anjou 

Cade,  Jack 

Roses,  Wars  of  the 

Edward  IV 

Warwick,  Earl  of 

RicJiard  III 

Tudor 

Under  the  Tudors  the  power  of  Par- 
liament greatly  declined.  The  Refor- 
mation, initiated  by  Henry  VIII,  soon 
spread  beyond  the  limits  the  King  would 
set  to  it,  and  England  became  Protes- 
tant. Under  Elizabeth  it  was  forced 
to  contend  against  Spain,  the  champion 
of  Catholicism.  With  the  defeat  of 
Spain,  England  enters  on  her  career  as 
ruler  of  the  seas  and  begins  the  work  of 
founding  a  new  English  speaking  na- 
tion across  the  Atlantic.  The  death  of 
Elizabeth,  the  last  of  the  Tudors,  gives 
England  and  Scotland  a  common  sov- 


its 


gn.     A  revived  Parliament  asserts 
rights     successfully     against     the 


absolutism  of  the  Stuarts,  dethrones 
them,  recalls  them,  and  drives  them  as 
enemies  of  Protestantism  once  more 
from  the  throne,  bestowing  the  crown 
upon  a  prince  of  Dutch  blood.  The 
crowns  of  England  and  Scotland  are 
united.  On  the  Continent,  England 
takes  a  leading  part  in  the  overthrow 
of  Louis  XIV  of  France  and  comes  out 
of  the  struggle  more  powerful  than 
ever  upon  the  seas.  See : 
Henry  VII 


16 


HISTORY 


Parliament 

Star  Chamber 

Benevolence 

Henry  VIII 

Boleyn,  Anne 

Wolsey,  Cardinal 

Cromwell,  Thomas 

Reformation 

Cranmer 

Edward  VI 

Mary  I 

Ridley 

Latimer 

Elizabeth 

Supremacy 

Mary  Stuart 

Burleigh 

Walsingham 

Leicester 

Essex 

Armada 

Drake 

Howard 

Stuart 

James  I 

Charles  I 

Petition  of  Rights 

Ship-Money 

Strafford,  Earl  of 

Laud 

Long  Parliament 

Grand  Remonstrance 

Five  Members 

Pym 

Eliot 

Hampden 

Cromwell,  Oliver 

Vane,  Henry 

Blake 

Fairfax 

Ireton 

Scotland 

Covenants 

Prcsbytcrianism 


Montrose,  Earl  of 

Charles  II 

Clarendon,  Earl  of 

Cabal 

Test  Acts 

Gates,  Titus 

Shaftesbury,  Earl  of 

James  II 

Halifax,  Earl  of 

William  HI 

Mary  II 

Anne 

Succession  Wars   (Spanish) 

Utrecht,  Treaty  of 

Marlborough,  Duke  of 

Bolingbroke 

Harley 

Sacheverell 

With  the  accession  of  the  House  of 
Hanover,  the  supremacy  of  Parliament 
is  firmly  established ;  cabinet  govern- 
ment is  developed,  and  the  rule  of  party 
is  the  order — by  the  Whigs,  roughly 
speaking,  to  the  French  Revolution,  by 
the  Tories  to  1832,  by  the  two  or  their 
successors  since  then,  in  comparatively 
rapid  alternation.  France  is  defeated 
and  deprived  of  her  Indian  and  Ameri- 
can possessions,  but  almost  immediately 
England  suffers  an  irreparable  loss  in 
the  defection  of  the  thirteen  colonies. 
Partial  compensation,  however,  is  found 
in  India,  where  English  adventurers 
build  up  a  new  empire.  After  the 
French  Revolution  and  tlie  Napoleonic 
Wars,  comes  strifol)ct  ween  the  advocates 
of  reaction  and  the  rising  forces  of 
democracy,  stimulated  by  the  great  in- 
dustrial revolution.  The  latter  win  in 
1832,  and  the  subsequent  history  of 
England  is  one  of  democratic  progress 
witiiin,  of  conquest  and  commercial  ex- 
pansion abroad.     See : 


HISTORY 


17 


Great  Britain 

Whig  and  Tory 

George  I 

Cabinet 

South  Sea  Company 

Walpole,  Robert 

George  II 

Newcastle,  Duke  of 

Chatham,  Earl  of 

Seven  Years'  War 

Bute,  Earl  of 

George  III 

Grenville 

Townshend 

Wilkes,  John 

North,  Lord 

Fox,  Charles  James 

Pitt,  William 

Burke,  Edmund 

Sheridan,  R.  B. 

Trafalgar 

Nelson 

Wellington 

Peninsular  War 

Canning 

India 

Clive 

Hastings,  Warren 

Wellesley,  Marquis 

Cornwallis,  Lord 

Dupleix 

George  IV 

William  IV 

Pcterloo  ]\Iassacre 

Combination 

Trade  Unions 

Russel,  Lord  John 

Grey,  Earl 

Victoria 

Com  Laws 

Peel,  Robert 

Cobden,  John 

Bright,  John 

Palmerston,  Lord 


Derby,  Earl 

Disraeli 

Gladstone 

Salisbury,  Earl  of 

Rosebery,  Earl  of 

Chamberlain,  Joseph 

Balfour,  Arthur 

Campbell-Banncrman 

Vernon-Harcourt 

Morley,  John 

Ireland 

Tyrconnel 

Stewart,  Robert 

Grattan 

Roman  Catholic  Emancipation 

O'Connell,  Daniel 

Irish  Land  Laws 

Land  League 

Parnell,  Charles  Stewart 

Home  Rule 

Australia 

Australian  Federation 

Transvaal 

South  African  War 

Kruger,  S.  J.  P. 

Joubert,  P. 

De  la  Rey,  J.  H. 

De  Wet,  C. 

Pretorius,  M.  W. 

Rhodes,  Cecil 

Canada 

For  the  Historians: 

Clarendon,  Lord 
Dicey,  A.  V. 
Elphinstone,  M. 
Freeman,  E.  A. 
Froudc,  J.  A. 
FyfFe,  C.  A. 
Gairdner,  J. 
Gardiner,  S.  R. 
Geoffrey  of  Monmouth 
Gildas 
Giraldus  de  Barri 


18 


HISTORY 


Gneist,  R. 
Green,  J.  R. 
Gi'oss,  C. 
Hallam,  H. 
Holinshed,  R. 
Kinglake,  A.  W. 
Kingsford,  W- 
Lappenberg,  J.  ^I. 
Lecky,  W.  E.  H. 
Lingard,  J. 
Macaulay,  T.  B. 
McCarthy,  Justin 
Maitland,  F.  W. 
Napier,  W.  F.  P. 
Palgrave,  F. 
Paris,  Matthew 
Pauli,  R. 
Rose,  J.  H. 
Seebohm,  F. 
Seeley,  J.  R. 
Stanhope,  Earl 
Stubbs,  W. 
Turner,  Sharon 
Walpole,  Spencer 
Wilham  of  Mahnesbury 

2.  France. 

Upon  the  dissolution  of  the  Prankish 
Empire  in  the  ninth  century,  descend- 
ants of  Charles  the  Great  continue  to 
rule  over  the  land  of  the  Western 
Franks  with  a  population  predom- 
inantly Celtic  and  a  language  derived 
from  the  Latin.  This  is  the  begin- 
ning of  France.  The  weak  Caro- 
lingian.s  are  replaced  by  the  energetic 
house  of  Capet,  under  which  tlie  unifi- 
cation of  the  country  is  carried  on  by 
sudi  able  rulers  as  Piiilip  II.  Louis  IX, 
and  Philip  IV.  The  Hundred  Years' 
War  is  disastrous  to  tlie  kingdom,  but 
its  recovery  is  rapid  under  Charles  VII 
and  his  son,  Louis  XI,  who  leave  the 


power  of  the  crown  firmly  established. 
Religious  wars  in  the  sixteenth  century 
become  a  factor  for  anarchy,  but 
feudalism  is  definitely  crushed  by 
Richelieu,  and  absolutism  is  established 
by  Louis  XIV,  under  whom  France  is 
for  fifty  years  the  overweening  power 
in  Europe.  Absolutism  breaks  down 
under  Louis  XIV's  unworthy  successors, 
and  the  entire  ancient  fabric  of  society 
is  swept  away  by  the  French  Revolu- 
tion.    See : 

France 

Brittany 

Normandy 

Burgundy 

Flanders 

Aquitania 

Anjou 

Navarre 

Franks 

Carolingians 

Verdun,  Treaty  of 

Capetian  Dynasty 

Louis  VII 

Philip  II,  Augustus 

Louis  IX 

Philip  IV,  the  Fair 

Valois,  House  of 

Hundred  Years'  War 

Crecy 

Poitiers 

John  II 

Jacquerie 

Charles  VI 

Agincourt 

I)u  Guesclin 

Dunois 

Joan  of  Arc 

Charles  VII 

Louis  XI 

diaries  the  Bold 

Charles  VIII 


HISTORY 


19 


Louis  XII 
Francis  I 
Henry  II 

Huguenots 
Catliarine  de'  IMedici 
Guise 
Conde 
Coligny 

Bartholomew's,  Massacre  of  Saint 
Charles  IX 
Henry  III 
Politiques 
Henry  IV 
Nantes,  Edict  of 
Sully,  Duke  de 
Louis  XIII 
Richelieu 

Westphalia,  Peace  of 
]\Iazarin 

Maintenon,  Marquise  de 
Louis  XIV 
Fronde 
Parlement 
Colbert 
Louvois 
Turenne 

Vendome,  Duke  de 
Luxembourg,  Duke  of 
Villars 
Camisards 
Succession  Wars 
Orleans,  Philippe,  Duke  of 
Dubois 
Louis  XV 
Seven  Years'  War 
Pompadour,  Marquise  de 
Du  Barry,  Countess 
Louis  XVI 
Turgot 
Necker 

Farmers-General 
States-General 

The  abolition   of  feudalism  by  the 
French  National  Assembly  is  followed 


by  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy. 
Assailed  by  the  rulers  of  Europe, 
France  retaliates,  and  its  conquering 
armies  carry  the  gospel  of  democracy 
over  the  Continent.  Under  Napoleon, 
France  dominates  Europe  until,  de- 
feated by  a  rising  of  the  European 
peoples,  it  is  compelled  to  take  back  its 
Bourbon  kings.  Reaction  struggles 
with  the  advancing  ideals  of  political 
and  social  revolution,  and  the  country 
witnesses  within  the  century  the  over- 
throw of  three  dynasties  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  two  republics.  Under 
Napoleon  III,  France  regains  for  a 
brief  period  its  ascendency  in  Euro- 
pean politics,  but  suffers  overwhelming 
defeat  at  the  hands  of  a  new-created 
Germany.  Her  latest  history  has  to 
do  with  the  slow  grounding  of  repub- 
lican principles  and  the  adjustment  of 
relations  between  Church  and  State. 
See: 

French  Revolution 

Assembly,  National 

Mirabeau 

Marie  Antoinette 

Bastille 

National  Guard 

Lafayette 

Bailly 

Jacobins 

Feuillants 

Cordeliers 

Barnave 

Petion 

Pillnitz 

Valmy 

Jemappes 

Dumouriez 

Convention,  National 

Girondists 

Brissot 


20 


HISTORY 


Roland  de  la  Platiere 

Vergniaud 

Montagnardes 

]\Iarat 

Danton 

Billaud-Varennes 

Carnot 

Callot  d'Herbois 

Robespierre 

Saint-Just 

Couthon 

Vendee 

Reign  of  Terror 

Hebert 

Jourdan 

Pichegru 

Moreau 

Barras 

Directory 

Sicyes 

Talleyrand 

Consulate 

Josephine 

Napoleon  I 

Berthier 

Massena 

Ney 

Murat 

Davout 

Junot 

Marinont 

Lanncs 

Soult 

Suchet 

Victor 

Bcaubarnais 

Bessiercs 

Continental  System 

Code  Napoleon 

Concordat 

Waterloo 

Louis  XVIII 

Charles  X 

Louis  Philippe 


Guizot 

Thiers 

Ledru-RoUin 

Blanc,  Louis 

Cavaignac 

Napoleon  III 

Crimean  War 

Maximilian  of  Austria 

Franco-German  War 

Bazaine 

Commune 

Favre,  Jules 

Gambetta 

Mac]Mahon 

Grevy 

Ferry 

Carnot 

Boulanger 

Casimir-Perier 

Faure 

Loubet 

Dreyfus,  Alfred 

Waldeck -Rousseau 

Delcasse 

For  the  Historians: 

Cheruel,  P.  A. 

Duruy,  V. 

Froissart,  J. 

Geoffre}'  of  Villehardouin 

Guizot,  F.  P.  G. 

Hamel,  L.  E. 

Hanotaux,  G. 

Houssayc,  H. 

Joinville,  Jean 

Lanfrcy,  P. 

Lavisse,  E. 

Luchaire,  A. 

Martin,  H. 

Michaud,  J. 

Michclet,  J. 

Mignet,  F.  A.  M. 

Montalenibert,  C.  F. 


HISTORY 


21 


Quinet,  E. 
Sorel,  A. 
Stephens,  H.  M. 
Sybel,  H. 
Thierry,  Amedee 
Thierry,  Augustin 
Thou,  J.  A.  de 

3.  Germany. 

German  history,  like  the  history  of 
France,  may  be  dated  from  the  dissolu- 
tion of  the  Prankish  Empire.  Unlike 
France,  Germany  knew  no  unity  until 
the  very  latest  times.  The  establish- 
ment of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  the 
tenth  century  connected  the  political 
fortunes  of  Germany  with  those  of  Italy 
and  the  Papacy,  and  the  history  of  the 
empire  is  but  the  history  of  the  sep- 
arate states  within  the  empire.  After 
1273,  the  imperial  dignity  is  held,  as  a 
rule,  by  members  of  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg,  and  the  imperial  interests  become 
more  and  more  Austrian.  Disunion  is 
fostered  by  the  Reformation  and  per- 
petuated by  the  Thirty  Years'  War. 
In  the  eighteenth  century,  Prussia  en- 
ters into  competition  with  Austria  for 
leadership  in  the  empire,  which,  after 
existing  for  more  than  eight  hundred 
years,  is  dissolved  by  Napoleon  in  1805. 
The  quarrel  between  Prussia  and  Aus- 
tria is  fought  out  in  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  the  former  triumphs.  A 
new  German  Empire  is  formed,  differ- 
ing from  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  in  its 
national  character,  and,  as  the  strongest 
military  power  on  the  Continent,  occu- 
pies a  leading  place  in  the  European 
system.     See : 

Germany 

Prussia 

Bavaria 


Saxony 

Wiirttemberg 

Hanover 

Baden 

Verdun,  Treaty  of 

Franconia 

Swabia 

Lorraine 

Otho  I 

Holy  Roman  Empire 

Henry  II 

Conrad  II 

Henry  IV 

Investiture 

Gregory  VII 

Hohenstaufen 

Guelphs  and  Ghibellines 

Frederick  I,  Barbarossa 

Henry  VI 

Frederick  II 

Hapsburg 

Rudolph  I 

Austria-Hungary 

Charles  IV 

Golden  Bull 

Electors 

Sigismund 

Maximilian  I 

Aulic  Council 

Imperial  Chamber 

Reformation 

Charles  V 

Passau,  Treaty  of 

Bohemia 

Thirty  Years'  War 

Leopold  I 

Charles  VI 

Pragmatic  Sanction 

Frederick  William  I 

Frederick  II 

Maria  Theresa 

Succession  Wars  (^Austrian) 

Seven  Years'  War 

Francis  II  of  Austria 


22 


HISTORY 


Frederick  William  III 

Stein 

Scharnhorst 

Bliicher 

Gneiscnau 

Leipzig,  Battles  of 

Waterloo 

Vienna,  Congress  of 

Metternich 

Burschenschaft 

Zollverein 

Frankfort,  Council  of 

Frederick  William  IV 

Seven  Weeks'  War    , 

Bismarck 

Moltke 

North  German  Confederation 

William   I 

Kulturkampf 

Triple  Alliance 

William  II 

Caprivi 

Hohenlohe 

Biilow 

For  the  Historians: 

Dahlmann,  F.  C. 
Dahn,  F. 
Droysen,  J.  G. 
Dijmmler,  E. 
Erdmannsdorffer,  B. 
GfriJrcr,  A.  F. 
Giesebrecht,  F.  W.  B. 
Hiiusser,  L. 
Janssen,  J. 
Lamprccht,  K. 
IManrcnhrcrhcr,  W. 
IMiiller,  Johannes 
Onckcn,  W. 
Rankc,  L. 
Raumer,  F.  L. 
Sybcl,  H. 
Trcitschkc,  II. 


4.  Austria-Hungary. 

Austria-Hungary  is  a  political  unit 
merely  and  in  no  sense  a  national  State, 
and  its  history  is  largely  that  of  the 
several  states  that  compose  it.  The  re- 
lationship to  European  affairs  result- 
ing from  the  close  connection  between 
the  house  of  Austria  and  the  Holy  Ro- 
man Empire,  for  five  centuries,  is  best 
traced  under  Germany,  which  see. 
Here,  the  internal  affairs  alone  will  be 
touched  upon,  and  the  history  may  be 
summed  up  in  the  history  of  a  family, 
the  Hapsburgs,  that,  starting  with 
small  territorial  possessions  in  the  Swa- 
bian  mountains,  brought  under  its  sway 
by  conquest  or  marriage  the  heart  of 
Central  Eui'ope,  from  the  Carpathians 
to  the  Alps  and  from  the  Vistula  to  the 
Danube  and  the  Adriatic  Sea.     See: 

(a)   For  Austria: 

Austria-Hungary 

Bohemia 

Dalmatia 

Styria 

Moravia 

Galicia 

Tyrol 

Carinthia 

Carniola 

Babcnberg 

Ottokar  II 

Hapsburg 

Rudolph  I 

Albert  II 

Maximilian  I 

Charles  V 

Ferdinand  I 

Maximilian  II 

Ferdinand  II 

Tliirty  Years'  War 

Succession  Wars  (Spanish) 

Eugene,  Prince 


HISTORY 


23 


Joseph  II 

Leopold  II 

Campo-Formio 

Luneville 

Pressburg 

Vienna,  Congress  of 

Mcttcrnich 

Francis  II 

Francis  Joseph 

Windischgratz 

Radetzky 

Lombardy 

Seven  Weeks'  War 

Ausgleich 

Triple  Alliance 

(b)   For  Hungary: 
Hungary 
Arpad 
Bathory 
Louis  I 
Sigismund 
Hunyady,  Janos 
Mattliias   Corvinus 
Louis  II 
Mohacs 
Zapolya 
Tokolyi 

John  HI,  Sobieski 
Rakoczy 
Deak,  Fcrencz 
Batthyanyi 
Kossuth 
Bern 

Dcmbinski 
Gorgey 
Meszaros 
Klapka 
Haj-nau 

(b)   For  the  Historians: 
Arneth,  A.  R. 
Fessler,  I.  A. 
Gindely,  A. 
Hormayr,  J. 


Krones,  F. 
Mailath,  J. 
Zeissberg,  H. 
Wolf,  Adam 

6.  The  Iberian  Peninsula. 

One  of  the  riches  c  regions  of  the  Ro- 
man Empire,  Hispania,  was  wrested 
from  the  Romans  by  successive  waves  of 
barbarian  invaders  in  the  fifth  century 
of  our  era.  The  Christian  Gothic  king- 
dom was  overthrown  by  the  Arabs,  who 
developed  in  the  peninsula  a  civiliza- 
tion that  was  long  the  highest  in  Eu- 
rope. The  remnants  of  the  Christian 
inhabitants  rallied  in  the  northern 
mountains  and  a  slow  but  steady  process 
of  reconquest  was  begun,  hastened  by 
the  dissolution  of  the  Arab  Caliphate, 
retarded  by  strife  among  the  various 
Christian  kingdoms,  completed  before 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  when 
the  greater  part  of  the  peninsula  had 
been  brought  under  one  crown.  Portu- 
gal alone  preserved  its  independence  of 
Castile.  Enriched  by  the  wealth  of  a 
newly  discovered  world  and  her  Low- 
land possessions,  Spain,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  plays  the  leading  role  in 
European  affairs  and  then  enters  on  a 
course  of  political  and  economic  de- 
cline which  has  continued  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  Portugal  and  Great  Britain 
have  been  friends  since  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century.     See: 

(a)   For  Spain : 

Spain 

Iberians 

Phoenicia 

Carthage 

Hispania 

Lusitania 


24 


HISTORY 


Goths 

Suevi 

Roderick 

Moors 

Tarik 

Ommiads 

Cordova 

Mohammedan  Art 

Navarre 

Asturias 

Leon 

Castile 

Aragon 

Ahnoravides 

Ahnohades 

Granada 

Boabdil 

Ferdinand  V  of  Castile 

Isabella  I 

Ximenes 

Inquisition 

Cortes 

Fuero 

Padilla,  Juan 

Alcantara 

Calatrava 

Gonsalvo  de  Cordova 

Philip   II 

Armada 

Philip   III 

Philip  IV 

Charles  II 

Succession  Wars  (Spanish) 

Alberoni 

Farncse 

Charles  IV 

Godoy 

Peniiistilar  War 

Ferdinand  VII 

Carlos,  Don 

Maria  Christina 

Isabella  II 

Espartero 

Narvacz 


Prim 

O'Donnell 

Castelar 

Serrano 

Amadeus  I 

Alfonso   XII 

Canovas  del  Castillo 

Sagasta 

Silvela 

Spanish-American  War 

(b)  For  Portugal: 

Portugal 

Alfonso  I 

Diniz 

John  I 

Henry  the  Navigator 

Alfonso  V 

IVIanuel  the  Great 

Gama,  A'asco  da 

Almeida 

All)uqucrque 

John  III 

Braganza,  House  of 

Methuen  Treaty 

Pombal 

Peninsular  War 

Miguel,  Dom 

Pedro,    Dom 

Saldanha 

Charles  I 

Brazil 

(c)  For  the  Historians,  see: 

Coxe,  W. 
Gayangos 
Lafuente,  M. 
Llorente,  J.  A. 
IMariana,  J.  ^ 

Prcscott,  W.  H. 
Robertson,  W. 

6.  Italy. 

The  fall  of  the  Western  Empire  was 
followed    by    a    struggle    between    the 


HISTORY 


25 


Goths  and  the  Byzantines  for  tlie  posses- 
sion of  Italy.  The  latter  held  the  south 
while  the  north  passed  from  the  Goths 
to  the  Lombards  and  the  Franks.  Con- 
stituted with  Germany  into  a  shadowy 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  Italy  enters  upon 
a  period  of  utter  disunion  with  the  Pa- 
pal power  established  in  the  centre  of 
the  peninsula,  the  north  parceled  out 
into  independent  principalities  and  re- 
publics, the  south  ruled  by  Normans, 
Saracens,  French,  and  Spaniards.  The 
Italian  cities  rise  to  great  prosperity 
after  the  Crusades  and  become  the  cra- 
dle of  the  Renaissance.  The  state  of 
political  disintegration  continues  till  the 
later  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
and  Italy  suffers  from  internal  strife 
and  foreign  domination,  Spain  and 
Austria  playing  the  master  in  the 
greater  part  of  the  peninsula.  Union 
comes  to  the  country  from  the  house  of 
Savoy,  whose  power,  spreading  over 
Sardinia  and  Piedmont,  after  a  contest 
with  Austria,  the  Papacy,  and  Spain, 
spreads  over  the  entire  peninsula. 
Early  Italian  history  is  best  studied  in 
the  story  of  separate  states  and  cele- 
brated families.     See: 

Rome 

Venice 

Florence 

Milan 

Genoa 

Pisa 

Lucca 

Verona 

Bologna 

Ravenna 

Ferrara 

Naples 

Papal  States 

Two  Sicilies,  Kingdom  of 

Sicily 


Foscari 

Falieri 

IVIalatesta 

Medici 

Visconti 

Colonna 

Orsini 

Este 

Borgia 

Theodoric  the  Great 

Belisarius 

Narses 

Lombards 

Saracens 

Normans 

Guiscard 

Crusade 

Reniassance 

Charles  VIII  of  France 

Sforza 

Condottieri 

Louis  XII  of  France 

Ferdinand  V  of  Spain 

Julius  II  (Pope) 

Savoy 

Napoleon  I 

SuvarofF 

Nelson 

Murat 

Carbonari 

Holy  Alliance 

Victor  Emmanuel  I 

Charles  Albert 

Mazzini 

Young  Italy 

Radctzky 

Manin 

Cavour 

Garibaldi 

Victor  Emmanuel  II 

Villafranca 

Lamoriciere 

RattazzI 

Ricasoli 


26 


HISTORY 


Crispi 

Rudini 

Depretis 

Humbert  I 

Victor  Emmanuel  III 

Mafia 

Camorra 

For  the  Historians : 
Amari,   M. 
Balbo,  C. 
Botta,   C.   G. 
Burckhardt,  J. 
Cantii,  C. 
Cibrario,  G.  A. 
Farini,  L.  C. 
Gallenga,  A. 
Gregorovius,  F. 
Hodgkin,  T. 
La  Farina,  G. 
Liudprand 
Muratori,   L.   A. 
Paulus  Diaconus 
Reumont,  A. 
Sarpi,  P. 
Sismondi,  J.  C. 
Symonds,  J.  A. 

7.  The  Slav  Empire. 

The  Slav  inhabitants  of  the  plains 
south  of  tlie  Finnish  lakes  received  in 
the  ninth  century  a  ruler  of  Scandina- 
vian stock,  whose  successors  extended 
their  sway  to  the  southern  rivers.  The 
Byzantine  civilization  and  religion  arc 
introduced.  The  unity  of  the  country 
<lisaj)pears  after  the  tentli  century,  and 
its  independence  is  swept  away  in  tlie 
thirteenth  by  Mongol  inv/idcrs  from 
the  east.  Tlio  power  of  the  Mongols 
breaks  up  in  the  fifteenth  century  and 
a  new  empire  is  created  by  the  grand 
princes  of  Moscow,  whose  rule  is  stead- 
ily extended  to  the  south  and  west  at 
the  expense  of  Poland  and  the  Baltic 


powers.  Peter  I  brings  Russia  within 
the  sphere  of  European  politics  and 
gains  for  his  country  a  predominant 
place  among  the  northern  powers. 
With  the  Baltic  reached,  Russia  turns 
once  more  to  the  soutli  and  driving  the 
Turks  before  her,  she  reaches  the  Black 
Sea  and  seeks  to  press  into  the  Balkan 
peninsula.  The  jealousy  of  the  pow- 
ers halts  her  progress  and  her  advance 
assumes  a  new  direction — eastward  and 
southward  in  Asia,  where  the  begin- 
nings of  her  power  had  been  made  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  In  her  attack 
on  the  integrity  of  the  Chinese  Empire, 
she  finds  a  formidable  rival  in  Japan. 
Internally,  after  Peter's  time,  a  strug- 
gle goes  on  between  the  Eastern  and 
Western  civilization,  which,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  twentieth  century,  finds 
Russia  still  a  despotism.  Poland,  at 
one  time  the  greatest  power  in  central 
Europe,  fell  tiirough  disunion  and  its 
territory  was  absorbed  by  Austria, 
Prussia,  and,  to  the  largest  extent,  by 
Russia.     See: 

(a)   For  Russia: 

Russia 

Slavs 

Varangians 

Rurik 

Novgorod 

Kiev 

Vladimir 

Tchcrnigov 

JJatu  Klian 

Alexander  Ncvski 

Moscow 

Kiptchak 

Ivan  III,  tlie  Great 

Ivan  IV,  tlie  Terrible 

GodunofF,  Boris 

Demetrius 


HISTORY 


27 


RoinanofF,  House  of 

Peter  I,  the  Great 

Streltsi 

Charles  XII  of  Sweden 

Anna  Ivanovna 

Dolgoruki 

Golitzin 

Biron 

Anna  Karlovna 

Ehzabeth  Petrovna 

Catharine  II 

Poland 

Armed  Neutrality 

Paul  I 

Alexander  I 

Tilsit 

Holy  Alliance 

Nicholas  I 

Crimean  War 

Alexander  II 

Serf 

Nihilism 

Russo-Turkish  War 

Berlin,  Congress  of 

Loris-Melikoff 

Alexander  III 

IgnatiefF 

Anti-Semitism 

Nicholas  II 

Finland 

Siberia 

Manchuria 

Chinese   Empire 

Port  Arthur 

Vladivostock 

Kuropatkin 

(b)   For  Poland: 

Poland 

Lithuania 

Teutonic  Knights 

Casimir  III,  the  Great 

Jagellons 

Casimir  IV 


Sigismund  the  Great 

Ukraine 

Cossacks 

Chmielnicki 

Cossacks 

Thorn 

John  III,  Sobieski 

Succession    Wars    (Polish) 

Stanislas  Leszczynski 

Augustus  II 

Catharine  II 

Kosciuszko 

Chlopicki 

Bem 

Dembmski 

Panslavism 

AksakofF,  I.  S. 

For  tlie  Historians : 

(a)  Bcstuzheff-Ryuniin,   K.   N. 
Bruckner,  A. 
Karamzin,  N.  M. 
KostomarofF,  N.  I. 
Pogodin,  M.  P. 
Rambaud,  A.  N. 
SoloviefF 

(b)  Chodzko,  L.  J. 
Lelewel,  J. 
Niemcewicz,  J.  U. 

8.  The  Balkan  Peninsula. 

The  Byzantine  Empire,  successor  to 
the  Roman  Empire  in  the  eastern  ]\Icd- 
iterranean,  after  a  thousand  years'  ex- 
istence, fell  before  the  Turks,  whose 
power,  spreading  northward  beyond  the 
Danube,  extended  over  Hungar}'  and 
threatened  the  Austrian  dominions. 
The  rapid  decline  of  the  Turks  begins 
with  the  eighteenth  century  and  has 
continued  to  the  present  day,  resulting 
in  the  restriction  of  the  Ottoman  power 
to  but  a  fraction  of  its  once  vast  terri- 
tories.   Russia  and  Austria  have  stead- 


28 


HISTORY 


ily  pressed  the  Turkish  power  back- 
ward, and  only  the  jealousy  of  the 
Western  powers,  England  primarily, 
has  preserved  the  integrity  of  the  Em- 
pire. Part  of  the  territory  wrested 
from  Turkey  has  been  erected  into  in- 
dependent Christian  States.  The  en- 
deavor of  the  Christian  population,  still 
subject  to  Turkey,  to  attain  their  in- 
dependence, constitutes  at  the  present 
time  a  perpetual  menace  to  the  govern 
ment  of  the  Sultan  and  the  peace  of 
Europe.     See : 

(a)   Turkey 

Eastern   Question 

Othnian 

Amurath  I 

Janizaries 

Bajazet  I 

Amurath  II 

Mohammed  II 

Sclim  I 

Solyman 

Lepanto 

Kiuprili 

Kara  Mustapha 

Eugene,  Prince 

Mahmud  II 

Mehemet  AH 

Crimean  War 

Abd  ul-Aziz 

Abd  ul-Hamid 

Russo-Turkish  War 

Berlin,  Congress  of 

Greece 

Crete 

Armenia 

Albania 

All  Pasha 

Macedonia 

(h)   Greece 

Hetscrae 
Coray 


Ypsilanti 

Mavrocordatos 

Miaulis 

Kanaris 

Bozzaris 

Kolokotronis 

Capo  d'Istria 

Navarino 

Otto  I 

George  I 

Trikoupis 

Delyannis 

(c)   Servia 

Czerny  George 

Obrenovitch 

Alexander  Karageorgevitch 

Milan  I 

Natalie 

Ristic 

Alexander  I 

Peter  I,  Karageorgevitch 

Skupshtina 

(rf)    Bulgaria 
Bulgars 

Russo-Turkish  War 
Alexander  I 
Ferdinand  I 
StambulofF 

(e)  Rumania 

Moldavia 

Wallachia 

Kantemir 

Hospodar 

Fanariots 

Ypsilanti 

Ghika 

Russo-Turkish  War 

Jews 

(f)  Bosnia 

(g)  Herzegovina 
(h)   Montenegro 


HISTORY 


29 


8.  The  Minor  Nations  of  Eueope. 

(a)   Denmark 

Margaret 

Christian  VII 

Schleswig-Holstein 

Frederick  VI 
(h)    Sweden 

Finland 

Eric 

ICalmar 

Sture 

Gustavus  Vasa 

Charles  IX 

Gustavus  Adolphus 

Oxenstierna 

Christina 

Charles  XII 

Gustavus  III 

Caps  and  Hats 

Charles  XIV,  John 

(c)   Norway 

Normans 
Harald  Haarfagr 
Iceland 
Haakon 
Denmark 

(f7)  Netherlands 
Burgundy 
Granvella 

IMargaret  of  Parma 
William  the  Silent 
Egmont 
Hoorne 
Alva 

Farnese,  Alexander 
Barneveldt 
Maurice  of  Nassau 
Dort,  Synod  of 
De  Witt 
Stadtholder 
William  III 
Louis  XIV 


(c)    Belgium 
Flanders 
Brabant 
Walloons 
Netherlands 
Ostcnd  Company 
Frere-Orban 
Rogier 

(/■)   Switzerland 

Helvetii 

Alemannia 

Burgundy 

Hapsburg 

Tell,  William 

Morgarten 

Sempach 

Winkelried 

Morat 

Zurich 

Hofer,  Andreas 

Sondcrbund 
For  the  Historians : 
Blok,  P.  J.   (Dutch) 
Fryxell,  A.  (Swedish) 
Geijer,   E.    (Swedish) 
Juste,  T.  (Belgian) 
Merle  D'Aubigne  (  Swiss ) 
Motley,  J.  L.   (Dutch) 

10.  South  America  and  Mexico. 

Beginning  with  Mexico  in  1519,  the 
great  regions  of  Central  and  South 
America  were  rapidly  brought  under 
Spanish  rule.  Portugal,  however,  lield 
sway  in  Brazil,  and  in  Guiana  small 
portions  fell  to  other  European  nations. 
The  harsh  Spanish  rule  led  to  bitter 
but  unsuccessful  uprisings  among  the 
Indian  tribes  of  Peru  and  Chile.  The 
first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century 
witnessed  the  successful  revolt  of  the 
Spanish  dependencies,  aided  in  their 
struggle  by  the  decidedly  friendly  at- 


30 


HISTORY 


titude  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  of  whom  the  latter  now  assumes 
the  role,  largely,  of  protector  over  the 
newly  established  republics.  A  decided 
inaptitude  for  self-government  is 
evinced  by  these,  and  chronic  disorder 
checks  national  development.  Chile, 
Argentina,  and  Jlexico  are,  however, 
prominent  exceptions.  Brazil,  after 
living  tranquilly  as  a  colony  of  Portu- 
gal and  an  independent  empire,  enters 
upon  the  troubled  career  of  republican 
politics  towards  the  end  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  The  influence  of  the 
United  States  in  South  America  be- 
comes an  important  factor  with  the  re- 
sumption of  the  work  of  building  the 
Panama  Canal.     See: 

Mexico 

Toltec 

Aztec 

Mexican  Archeology 

Montezuma 

Cortes 

Mendoza,   Antonio   de 

Hidalgo,  Miguel 

Morelos 

Iturbide 

Guerrero,  Vicente 

Bustamente 

Santa  Anna 

Texas 

Mexican  War 

Comonfort 

Juarez 

Miramon 

Almonte 

Maximilian 

Lerdo  de  Tcjada 

Diaz,  Porfirio 

Central  America 

Guatemala 

Nicaragua 

Honduras 


Salvador 

Costa  Rica 

Morazan 

Carrera,  Rafael 

Walker,  William 

Peru 

Peruvian   Antiquities 

Huayna  Capac 

Pizarro,  Francisco 

Pizarro,  Gonzalo 

Almagro 

San  Martin,  Jose  de 

Prado,  M.  I. 

Bolivia 

Chile 

Araucania 

Valdivia,  Pedro  de 

Carrera,  Jose  Miguel  de 

O'Higgins,  Bernardo 

San  Martin,  Jose  de 

Balmaceda,  Jose  IManucl 

Argentina 

Rosas,  Juan  IManuel 

Urquiza,  Justo  Jose 

Mitre,  Bartolome 

Sarmicnto,  Domingo  F. 

Uruguay 

Gauchos 

Artigas,  Fernando  Jose 

Flores,  Venancio 

Paraguay 

Guarani 

Francia,  Jose  Caspar 

Lopez,  Francisco  Solano 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

Venezuela 

Miranda,  F. 

Bolivar,  Simon 

Pacz,  Jose  Antonio 

Brazil 

Pedro  I 

Pedro  II 

Fonseca,  Deodoro  da 


HISTORY 


31 


For  tlie  Historians  and  Investigators, 
see: 
Ixtlilxochitl 
Prescott 

Bancroft,  H.  H. 
Bandolier,   A.   F.   A. 
Charnay,  C.  J.  D. 
Squier,  E.  G. 
Markhani,  C.  R. 
Vicuiia-Mackcnna,   Benjamin 

11.  The  Far  East. 

(1)  India.  The  history  of  India 
may  be  divided  into  three  periods,  tliat 
of  the  early  Hindu  domination,  the 
period  of  IMohammedan  rule,  and  the 
period  of  European  supremacy.    See : 

(a)  For  the  Peoples : 
India 

Indian  Peoples 
Aryan 
Dravidians 
Tamils 
Telugus 
Kanarcse 
Malayalim 

(&)   For  the  History: 
India 

Bimbisara 

Sandrocottus 

Ghaznivides 

Timur 

Baber 

Akbar 

Shah   Jehan 

Aurungzebe 

Nadir  Shah 

Ahmed  Shah 

Gama,  Vasco  da 

Albuquerque 

Almeida 

Pondicherry 

Goa 


Dupleix 
CHve 

East  India  Company 
Hastings,  Warren 
Cornwallis,   Lord 
Wellesley,  Marquis  of 
Nana  Sahib 
For  tlic  Religions  of  India,  see  Chapter 
on  Religion. 

(2)  China.  China  presents  the 
spectacle  of  a  nation  which,  having 
attained  a  high  degree  of  civilization 
at  a  time  when  Europe  was  still  barbar- 
ian, has  been  content  to  remain  quies- 
cent while  the  world  has  moved  forward. 
In  spite  of  its  vast  latent  strength,  it 
seems  destined  to  become  the  prey  of 
European  ambitions,  unless  the  example 
of  its  kindred  nation,  Japan,  should 
lead  it  to  recognize  the  civilization  of 
the  West,  and  to  observe  the  preponder- 
ant role  that  should  be  its  own  in  the 
Orient.     See : 

Chinese  Empire 

Chinese  Language  and  Literature 

Chinese  Music 

Fuh-hi 

She  Hwang-Ti 

Han 

Genghis  Khan 

Kuhlai  Khan 

Ta  Ts'ing 

K'ang-hi 

Hung-siu-ts'cuen 

Gordon,  Charles  George 

Li  Hung  Chang 

Kwang-Sii 

Far  Eastern  Question 

For  the  Philosophy  and  Religions  of 
China,  see  Chapter  on  Religion. 

(3)  Japan.  Among  the  nations  of 
the  East,  Japan  stands  forth  as  an 
amazing  exception  to  Eastern  immobil- 


32 


HISTORY 


ity.  The  political  balance  in  the  Pa- 
cific has  been  quite  upset  by  the  ap- 
pearance of  this  new  power,  which,  in 
less  than  four  decades,  has  passed  from 
feudalism  and  Oriental  seclusion  to  a 
constitutional  government  and  the  skil- 
ful utilization  of  the  sciences  and  wis- 
dom of  the  West.  Japan's  triumph 
over  China  in  1894-95  first  marked 
strength ;  its  magnificent  struggle 
against  Russian  aggression  in  China 
raised  the  possibility  of  a  quite  unex- 
pected development  in  the  relations  be- 
tween Europeans  and  Mongolians  in 
the  Far  East.     See : 

Japan 

Japanese  Art 

Japanese  Language 

Japanese  Literature 

Jimmu  Tenno 

Taira 

Samurai 

Minamoto 

Fu  j  iwara 

Yoritomo 

Ashikaga 

Daimio  •  < 

Nobunaga 

Hide3'oshi 

lyeyasu 

Tokugawa 

lyemitsu 

Perry,  M.  C. 

Keiki 

iVIutsuhito 

Arisugawa 

II  Kamon  no  Kami 

Itagaki,  Taisiikc 

Ito,  Hirobumi 

Iwakura,  Tomomi 

Okubo,  Toshimichi 

Okuma,  Shigcnobu 

Soyeshima  'I'aneomi 

Yamagata  Aritomo 


See  also : 
Nichiren 

Arai  Hakuseki  (1657—) 
Motoori  Norinaya  (1730 — ) 
Hokusai  (1760—) 
Fukuzawa,  Yukichi 
Kido,  Takayoshi 

For  the  Authorities.     See: 
Abeel,   D. 
Beal,    S. 
Biot,  E.  C. 
Grifl^s,  W.  E. 
Hirth,  F. 
Julien,   S.   A. 
Legge,  J. 
Morrison,  R. 

12.  The  United  States. 

Norse  explorations  in  North  America, 
about  the  year  1000,  led  to  no  result, 
and  Europe,  before  the  time  of  Colum- 
bus, had  no  knowledge  of  a  world  be- 
yond the  Atlantic.  The  discover}',  in 
1492,  was  followed  by  a  period  of  ex- 
ploration, in  which  Spanish,  French, 
English,  and  Dutch  participated.  Set- 
tlement follows,  and  poverty  and  relig- 
ious persecution  in  Great  Britain 
stretches  a  chain  of  English  speaking 
colonies  along  the  eastern  coast  of  what 
is  now  the  United  States.  Swedes  and 
Dutch  give  way  in  time,  and  with  Spain 
restricted  to  Florida,  England  enters 
into  a  struggle  for  possession  of  tlie  in- 
terior with  France,  whose  rule  has  mean- 
while been  cxtoiided  over  the  basins  of 
the  St.  Lawrence,  tlie  ^Mississippi,  and 
the  Great  Lakes.  England  triumphs, 
and  brings  under  her  authority  the  dis- 
puted territory  east  of  the  Mississippi. 
See: 

(a)  The  Discoverers : 
Ericson 


HISTORY 


33 


Vinland 

Madog 

Columbus 

Vespucius 

Cabot 

Cortereal 

Verrazano 

Ponce  de  Leon 

Ayllon 

Narvaez 

Nunez   Cabefa 

De  Soto 

Coronado 

Drake 

Frobisher 

Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey 

Gosnold 

Smith,  John 

Norumbega 

Cai'tier 

Champlain 

Hudson 

Nicollet 

Joliet 

Marquette 

La  Salle 

Hennepin 

Tonty 

Lewis,  Meriwether 

Clark,  William 

Pike 

Long,  S.  H. 

Bonneville 

Catlin 

Whitney,  J.  D. 

Haj'den 

Powell,  J.  W. 

(b)   The  Settlers: 

See  under  the  names  of  the  thirteen 
original  colonies  ;  also : 
London  Company 
Plymouth  Companjj 
Jamestown 


,(0 


Yeardley 

Berkeley 

Bacon 

Bradford,  William 

Standisji 

Endccott 

Winthrop 

Minuit,  Peter 

Kieft 

Stuyvesant 

Hooker,    T. 

Davenport,  J. 

Williams,  Roger 

Hutchinson,  Anne 

Baltimore,  Barons  of 

Claiborne 

Friends 

Penn 

Oglethorpe 

For  the  Struggle  with  the  French : 
King  William's  War 
Queen  Anne's  War 
King  George's  War 
French  and  Indian  War 
Pepperel,  William 
Louisburg 
Albany  Convention 
Braddock 
Amherst 
Abercromby 
Loudoun 
Wolfe,  James 
Montcalm 
Pontiac 
Paris,  Treaties  of 


England's  triumph  over  France  is 
followed  almost  immediately  by  the 
irreparable  loss  of  the  thirteen  col- 
onies. The  injustice  of  Parliamentary^ 
taxation  stirs  the  colonists  to  resistance, 
and  the  memory  of  their  triumph  over 
the  French  lends  them  courage  for  the 
struggle.     See : 


34 


HISTORY 


(a)   The  Pre- revolutionary  Period: 
Navigation  Laws 
Assistance,  Writ  of 
Otis,  James 
Stamp  Act 
Sons  of  Liberty 
Boston  Massacre 
Boston  Tea  Party 
Boston  Port  Bill 
Quebec  Act 
Adams,  Samuel 
Hancock,  John 

(6)  The  Revolution:  (1)  The  Battles: 
Lexington 
Concord 
Bunker  Hill 
Long  Island 
Trenton 
Princeton 
Brandywine 
Germantown 
Oriskany 
Bennington 
Saratoga 
Monmouth 
Camden 
Cowpens 

Guilford  Court  House 
Eutaw  Springs 
Yorktown 


(2) 


The  ]\Ien : 
Warren 
Putnam 
Washington 
Montgomery 
Arnold 
Lee,  Charles 
Gates 
Greene 
Conway 
Stark 
Plerkimer 
Morgan 


IMarion 

Sumter 

Pickens 

Lee,  Richard  Henry 

Jones,  Paul 

Wayne,  Anthony 

Clark,  George  Rogers 

Lafayette 

Rochambcau 

Grasse,  Count  de 

Steuben 

Kalb,  Baron  de 

Kosciuszko 

Pulaski 

Howe,  Lord 

Clinton 

Burgoyne 

Cornwallis 

Tarleton 

Jefferson 

Franklin,  B. 

Livingston,  R.  R. 

Deane,  Silas 

Sherman,  Roger 

Morris,  Robert 

Declaration  of  Independence 

The  thirteen  colonies,  having  vindi- 
cated their  independence  in  a  protracted 
war,  are  impelled  for  the  defence  of 
their  now  won  liberties^  and  the  further- 
ance of  their  common  welfare,  to  organ- 
ize themselves  into  a  federal  republic 
with  a  written  constitution,  in  nature 
essentially  a  compromise  between  the 
ideas  of  local  liberty  and  efficiency  of 
the  central  authority.  The  Liberator 
of  the  nation  is  also  its  first  executive. 
His  death  is  followed  by  a  struggle  be- 
tween the  two  constitutional  principles. 
The  advocates  of  "  strict  construction  " 
triumph,  and,  in  the  person  of  Thomas 
Jefferson,  the  Republican-Democratic 
Party  assumes  power  to  hold  it  unin- 
terruptedly    for     forty     years.      The 


HISTORY 


35 


boundaries  of  the  Union  are  extended 
by  the  admission  of  new  States,  and  the 
national  territory  is  enormously  in- 
creased by  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana 
and  Florida.  Party  differences  disap- 
pear, for  a  while,  after  a  second  war 
with  Great  Britain,  but  a  new  cause 
of  dissension  appears  in  the  form  of  the 
slavery  question,  which  replaces  consti- 
tutional politics  by  sectional.     See : 

(a)  The  Formation  of  the  Union: 

Constitution  of  the  United  States 

Shays's  Rebellion 

Hamilton 

Madison 

Jay 

Pinckney,  C.  C. 

Wilson,  James 

Randolph,  Edmund 

Paterson,  William 

Henry,  Patrick 

Northwest  Territory 

(b)  The  Era  of  Party  Strife: 

Federalists 
Anti-federalists 
Federalist,  The 
Gallatin,  A. 
Marshall,  John 
Burr 
Genet 

Jay  Treaty 
Whiskey  Rebellion 
X.  Y.  Z.  Correspondence 
Alien  and  Sedition  Laws 
Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolu- 
tions 
Louisiana  Purchase 
Lewis  and  Clark  Expedition 
Continental  System 
Orders  in  Council 
Embargo 
Chesapeake,  The 


Constitution,  The 

Erie,  Battle  of  Lake 

Thames,  Battle  of  the 

Chippewa 

Lundy's  Lane 

New  Orleans,  Battle  of 

Tippecanoe 

Hull,  Isaac 

Hull,  William 

Lawrence 

Perry 

Macdonough 

Hartford  Convention 

Cushing,  Caleb 

Ghent,  Treaty  of 

Missouri  Compromise 

Monroe,  James 

Monroe  Doctrine 

The  Democratic  Party  in  the  course 
of  time  did  not  fail  to  adopt  many  of 
the  principles  of  the  old  Federalists, 
among  them  notably  the  national  en- 
couragement of  internal  improvements 
and  the  creation  of  a  Government  bank. 
The  tendency  on  the  part  of  a  faction 
to  lay*  stress  on  these  functions  of  the 
Government  led  to  the  dissolution  of  the 
Democratic  Party.  The  Whigs  now 
appear,  historically  the  successors  of 
the  Federalists  and  the  predecessors  of 
the  Republican  Party.  The  hierarchic 
succession  of  pi-esidents  ends  in  1828, 
and  the  Western  Democracy  triumphs 
in  the  person  of  Andrew  Jackson.  Sec- 
tional feeling,  fostered  by  growing 
economic  diff^erences  between  North  and 
South,  is  intensified  by  the  rise  in  the 
North  of  an  outspoken  spirit  of  oppo- 
sition to  the  institution  of  slavery. 
The  two  political  parties  for  a  time 
eagerly  ignore  the  issue,  and  Southern 
statesmen,  armed  with  the  threat  of  a 
disruption  of  the  Union,  succeed  in 
coercing  the  conservatives  in  the  North. 


36 


HISTORY 


Territorial  expansion,  however,  forces 
the  slavery  question  into  the  fore- 
ground ;  the  Whig  Party,  unwilling 
directly  to  challenge  the  issue,  is  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Republican  Party,  which 
will.  The  Democratic  Party  is  broken 
in  two.  With  the  triumph  of  the  anti- 
slavery  party  in  I860,  the  South 
secedes  from  the  Union.  See : 
(o)  The  Formation  of  Parties  and  the 
Rise  of  the  Slavery  Question: 

Democratic  Party 

Adams,  John  Quincy 

Crawford,  William 

Jackson,  Andrew 

Caucus 

Whig  Party 

Clay,  Henry 

Cumberland  Road 

Tariff 

Nullification 

McDuffie 

Calhoun,  Jolm  C. 

Haync,  Robert 

Webster 

Abolitionists 

Garrison,  William  Lloyd 

Phillips,  Wendell 

Lovejoy,  Elijah 

Lundy,  Benjamin 

Van  Buren 

Marcy,  W.  L. 

Harrison,  William  Henry 

Tyler 

Wcbster-Ashburton  Treaty 

Nortlieast  Boundary  Dispute 

Polk 

Texas 

Houston,  Samuel 

Oregon 

Northwest  Boundary  Dispute 

Mexican  War 

Wilniot  Proviso 

Scott,  Winficld 


Taylor,  Zachary 

Fillmore 

Cass 

Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty 

{b)  The  Final  Struggle  over  Slavery: 
Free  Soil  Party 
Compromise  Measures  of  1850 
Fugitive  Slave  Law 
Seward 

Sumner  ' 

Davis,  Jefferson 
Underground  Railroad 
Pierce,  Franklin 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill 
Popular  Sovereignty 
Thayer,  Eli 
Republican  Party 
Douglas,  Stephen  A. 
Taney,  Roger 
Dred  Scott  Case 
Buchanan,  James 
Brown,  John 
Lincoln,  Abraham 
Breckinridge,  J.  C. 
Bell,  John 
Constitutioual  Union  Party 

(c)   The  Civil  War: 

Civil  War  in  America 
Confederate  States  of  America 
Stephens,  Alexander 
Benjamin,  Judah  P. 
Toombs,  Robert 

1.  The  Battles: 
I.   In  the  East: 

P^oi-t  Sumter 
Big  Bethel 
Bull  Run 
Ball's  Bluff 
Williamsburg 
Seven  Pines 
Mechanicsville 


HISTORY 


37 


Gaines's  Mill 
Savage's  Station 
Frazier's  Farm 
Malvern  Hill 
Bull  Run  (second) 
Antietam 
Fredericksburg 
Chancellorsville 
Gettysburg 

II.  In  the  West: 

Wilson's  Creek 

Paducah 

Belmont 

Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donclson 

Pea  Ridge 

Shiloh 

Corinth 

luka 

Island  No.  10 

New  Orleans 

Perryville 

Stone  River 

Vicksburg 

Chickamauga 

Chattanooga 

Mobile  Bay 

III.  The  Final  Campaigns: 

Dalton 

Kenesaw  Mountain 

Nashville 

Fort  McAllister 

Bentonville 

Wilderness 

Spottsj'lvania  Court  House 

Cold  Harbor 

Monocacy 

Winchester 

Cedar  Creek 

Five  Forks 

Petersburg 

Appomatox  Court  House 


2.  The  Men: 
Grant 
Sherman 
Sheridan 
McCIellan 
Meade 
Thomas 
Burnside 
Halleck 
Hooker 
Rosecrans 
Buell 
Hancock 
Pope 
Lyon 
Foote 
Farragut 
Lee 

Jackson 
Johnston 
Johnston 
Longstreet 
Beauregard 
Bragg 
Hood 
Early 

(d)   Emancipation  Declaration 
Draft  Riots 

Four  years  of  civil  war  established 
the  principle  that  the  United  States, 
once  perhaps  a  federation,  is  now  a 
nation.  Slavery  is  abolished  and  a  par- 
tisan Congress,  under  the  stress  of  cir- 
cumstances, gives  the  ballot  to  the  lib- 
erated bondsmen.  Reconstructed,  the 
Southern  States  devote  themselves  to  the 
task  of  rebuilding  their  wasted  fortunes 
on  old  ruins  and  new  conditions.  The 
South  recognizes  the  lesson  of  the  war 
in  its  bearing  on  the  nature  of  our 
Government,  but  refuses  to  recognize 
the  capacity  for  political  and  social 
equality  in  the  negro,  and  in  the  last 


38 


HISTORY 


years  of  the  nineteenth  century  enters 
upon  a  deliberate  policy  of  negro  dis- 
franchisement through  State  legisla- 
tion. In  the  North  and  West,  the  era  is 
one  of  extraordinary  material  growth, 
and  political  questions  of  the  time 
are  largely  economic — currency,  tariff, 
labor,  and  monopoly.  With  the  ac- 
quisition of  the  Spanish  possessions  in 
the  Pacific,  and  the  assumption  of  the 
task  of  building  the  intcroceanic  Pan- 
ama Canal,  the  United  States  begins  its 
career  as  a  world  power.  See : 
(a)    The  Restored  Union: 

Johnson,  Andrew 

Reconstruction 

Freedmen's  Bureau 

Carpet  Baggers 

Ku-Klux  Klan 

Knights  of  the  Golden  Circle 

Force  Bill 

Tenure  of  Office  Act 

Stanton 

Chase,  S.  P. 

Stevens,  T. 
(fa)   Period  of  Republican  Ascendency : 

Grant 

Hayes 

Garfield 

Arthur 

Credit  IMobilicr  of  America 

Star  Route  Frauds 

Whisky  Ring 

Electoral  Commission 

Tilden 

Cleveland 

Harrison,  Benjamin 

McKinley,  Wm. 

Roosevelt,  T. 

Blaine,  J.  G. 

Reed,  T.  B. 
(c)    Finance  and  Tariff: 

Money 


Coinage 
Bimetallism 
Greenbacks 
Greeley,  H. 
Bland."^  R.  P. 
Bryan,  W.  J. 
Tariff 
Free  Trade 
Protection 

((/)   Industrial  History: 

Grange 

Populist  Party 

Farmer's  Alliance 

Labor  Organizations 

Arbitration 

Strikes  and  Lockouts 

Trusts 

Interstate  Commerce  Act 

Centennial  Exhibition 

World's  Columbian  Exposition 

Pan-American  Exposition 

Saint  Louis  World's  Fair 

Trans-Mississippi  Exposition 

{e)  Territorial  Expansion : 
Alaska 

Hawaiian  Islands 
Porto  Rico 
Philippine  Islands 
Spanish-American  War 
Sampson 
Schley 
Dewey 
Lawton 
Wheeler 
Aguinaldo 
Rizal 

(f)    Foreign  Relations: 
Ala!)amu  Claims 
Washington,  Treaty  of 
Virginius  Massacre 
Venezuela 
Bering  Sea  Controversy 


HISTORY 


39 


Special   Topics   in    United    States 
History. 

A.  Indian  Affairs: 

Indians 

Tecumseh 

Cherokee 

Creeks 

Seminole 

Osceola 

Black  Hawk 

Red  Jacket 

Sioux 

Sitting  Bull 

Custer 

Modoc 

Apache 

Geronimo 

B.  Minor  Political  Parties  and  Party 

Terms : 

Party  Names 

Liberty  Party 

American  Party 

Anti-Monopoly  Party 

Anti-Rentism 

Barnburners 

Blue  Light 

Bushwhacker 

Copperheads 

Conscience  Whigs 

Doughface 

Hunkers 

Loco-foco 

Protective  Association,  American 

Quids 

Stalwarts 

Tammany  Hall 

Anti-Masons 

Albany  Regency 

Essex  Junto 


Mugwump 
Readj  usters 

For  the  Historians: 
Adams,  H. 
Adams,  H.  B. 
Bancroft,  G. 
Bancroft,  H.  H. 
Brodhead,  J.  R. 
Bryce,  James 
Burgess,  J.  W. 
Coffin,  C.  C. 
Curtis,  G.  T. 
Dodge,  T. 
Doyle,  J.  A. 
Fiske,  J. 
Frothingham,  R. 
Gayarre,  C. 
Harrisse,  H. 
Hart,  A.  B. 
Higginson,   T.    W. 
Hildreth,  R. 
Hoist,  H.  E. 
Johnston,  A. 
Lodge,  H.  C. 
Lossing,  B. 
McMaster,  J.  B. 
Palfrey,  J.  G. 
Parkman,  F. 
Peter  ^Martyr 
Rhodes,  J.  F. 
Robinson,  J.  H. 
Ropes,  J.  C. 
Shea,  J.  G. 
Sloane,  W.  I\I. 
Sparks,  J. 
Thorpe,  F.  N. 
Thwaites,  R.  G. 
Wilson,  W. 
Winsor,  J. 


Qllfapt^r  2*  Ham  wxh  Pnlittral  ^txmtt 


NATIONAL  or  IMunicipal  law  is  commonly  divided  into  two  gen- 
eral classifications,  Substantive  Law,  and  Adjective  or  Remedial 
Law.  Substantive  Law  prescribes  and  defines  the  normal  rela- 
tions of  social  and  political  life,  that  is,  legal  rights,  obligations, 
and  privileges,  as  distinguished  from  violations  of  the  normal, 
legal  order.  (See  Substantive  Law.)  Adjective  or  Remedial  Law  deals  with 
abnormal  conditions,  such  as  crimes,  and  with  the  methods  of  enforcement  of 
legal  rights.  Both  of  these  classifications  are  severally  divided  into  Public 
Law,  and  Private  Law.  The  title.  Public  Law,  is  applied  to  those  subjects  which 
have  to  do  with  the  relations  of  individuals  to  the  various  branches  of  govern- 
ment. Private  Law  includes  the  rules  governing  the  relations  of  individuals  to 
each  other,  and  their  rights  in  and  over  property.  While,  for  some  pur- 
poses, Substantive  and  Remedial  Law  are  so  closely  connected  tliat  a  complete 
knowledge  of  one  is  not  possible  without  an  acquaintance  with  the  other,  yet,  in 
general,  it  may  be  said  that,  for  practical  purposes,  the  average  layman  is  con- 
cerned chiefly  with  the  rules  of  Substantive  Law,  except,  perhaps.  Public  Reme- 
dial Law — the  Law  of  Crimes.  For  example,  it  is  quite  necessary  that  a  person 
in  business  be  somewhat  familiar  with  the  ordinary  principles  of  the  Law  of 
Contracts,  but  it  is  not  necessary  that  he  should  know  how  to  proceed  in  law  to 
obtain  redress  for  the  breach  of  a  contract. 

International  Law  is  distinguished  from  Municipal  Law,  in  that  the  former 
deals  with  the  relations  of  nations  with  each  other,  and  sucli  rules  of  law  as  will 
be  recognized  by  nations  in  dealing  with  the  citizens  of  each  other,  while  the 
latter  deals  with  the  relations  of  one  nation  to  its  citizens,  and  the  relations  of 
the  citizens  with  each  other.  International  Law  is  administered,  generally,  in  the 
various  courts  of  each  nation  when  applicable,  but  the  refusal  of  a  nation  to 
recognize  any  of  its  principles  could  only  be  met  bj'  a  declaration  of  war  on  the 
part  of  the  aggrieved  nation  or  nations,  whereas  the  sovereign  power  of  a 
nation  sanctions  and  enforces  Municipal  or  National  Law.  Therefore,  to  avoid 
confusion,  topics  in  International  Law  are  placed  in  a  separate  classification. 
For  a  General  Discussion  of  the  Nature  and  Purposes  of  Law,  see : 

Law  Municipal  Law 

Jurisprudence  Mercantile  Law 

Substantive  Law  Military  Law 
International  Law 

A.    ^ubritmtttiti^    Slam 

classifications,     CoNSTiTrTioNAL     and 

I.  Public  Substantive  Law.  Adminmstkative  Law.     Constitutional 

This   branch   of   substantive   law    is      law  deals  with  tlic  nature  and  powers  of 

commonly    dividid    into    two    general      the  Government,  and  correlativcly  with 

■10 


LAW    AND   POLITICAL  SCIENCE 


41 


tlie  riglits  and  privileges  of  citizens 
with  reference  to  the  Government.  The 
name,  Administrative  Law,  is  applied 
to  that  portion  which  controls  and  regu- 
lates the  enforcement  of  tjie  will  of  the 
Government,  as  expressed  by  constitu- 
tions, statutes,  etc. 

1.  Constitutional  Law: 

Constitution 

Constitutional  Law 

Constitution  of  the  LTnited  States 

Magna  Charta 

Amendment 

Federal  Government 

Police  Power 

Veto 

Eminent  Domain 

Bill  of  Rights 

Civil  Rights  Bill 

Bill  of  Attainder 

Sovereignty 

State 

Ex  post  facto 

Retroactive 

Due  Process  of  Law 

Congress 

Legislature 

Legislation 

Conflict  of  Laws 

Act 

Act  of  Parliament 

Repeal 

Citizen 

Alien 

Naturalization 

Allegiance 

Domicile 

Alien  and  Sedition  Acts 

Expatriation 

Expulsion 

Liberty  of  Individual 

Liberty,  Religious 

Emancipation 


Reprieve 

Territories 
Consolidation  Acts 
Restraint  of  Trade 
Interstate  Commerce  Act 
Granger  Cases 
Concurrent  Jurisdiction 
Original  Package 
Income  Tax 
Inheritance    Tax 
Dartmouth  College  Case 
Slaughtcr-House  Cases 
Dred  Scott  Case 
Fugitive  Slave  Law 
Homestead  Laws 
Poor  Laws 
Tenure  of  Office  Act 
Legal  Tender  Cases 
Debt,  Public 
Convention 
Election 
Vote 

Fishing  Laws 
Franchise 

2.  Administrative  Law: 

Administrative  Law 

Executive  Department 

State,  Department  of 

Diplomacy 

High  Commission 

Commission 

Commissioner 

jMunicipality 

Municipal  Government 

Municipal  Law 

Municipal  Ownership 

Municipal  Reform  Acts 

Civil  Administration 

Court 

Supreme  Court  of  U.  S. 

Courts,  Military 

Court  Baron 

Court  of  Session 


42 


LAW    AND   POLITICAL  SCIENCE 


County  Court 

Common  Bench 

Probate    Court 

Petty    Sessions 

District  Court 

Sheriff's  Court 

Ecclesiastical  Court 

King's  Bench 

Cassation,  Court  of 

Claims,  Court  of 

Instance,  Court  of 

Inns  of  Chancery 

Inns  of  Court 

Ordinance 

Bj'-law 

Charter 

Building  Acts 

Cemetery  Laws 

Factor's  Acts 

Intoxicating  Liquors 

Grand  Jury 

Justice,  Lord 

Sheriff 

Justice  of  the  Peace 

Marshal 

Coroner 

Assessors 

Auditor 

Alderman 

Attorney-General 

Surrogate 

Judge-Advocate 

Judge 

Referee 

Justice 

Justice,  Department  of 

Justice  of  the  Peace 

Appointment 

II.   Private  Substantive  Law 

For  convenience  this  portion  of  the 
substantive  law  is  divided  into  two  clas- 
sific'utions,  the  Law  of  Persons  and  the 
Law  of  Property. 


1.  Law  of  Persons: 

In  law,  both  natural  persons  and 
those  creations  of  the  law,  such  as  cor- 
porations, known  as  legal  entities,  or 
juristic  persons,  are  classed  together  in 
the  Law  of  Persons,  as  the  same  gen- 
eral principles  apply  to  them.  Under 
the  title  Natural  Persons,  are 
grouped  titles  dealing  with  the  pecu- 
liar privileges  and  disabilities  of 
married  women,  infants,  and  persons 
of  unsound  mind.  Topics  dealing 
with  the  family  relation  are  for  con- 
venience grouped  together. 

(a)  Natural  Persons: 

I.  Persons    Exercising    Incomplete    or 
Special  Rights: 

Infant 
Minor 
Legitimacy 
Apprentice 
Disability 
.  Married  Women 
Feme  Covcrte 
Coverture 
Insanity 
Lucid  Interval 
Capacity 

(h)   Fu,mihj  Relations: 

Husband  and  Wife 

Settlement 

Marriage 

Divorce 

Alimony 

Adultery 

Se])aration 

Aban(Ii)nnient 

Paraphernalia 

Community  of  Property 

Pin-]\Ion('y 

Separate  Estate 


LAW    AND   POLITICAL  SCIENCE 


43 


Parent  and  Child 

Adoption 

Bastard 

Ancestor 

Affinity 

Consanguinity 

Domicile 

Guardian 

(c)   Juristic  Persons: 

Company 

Corporation 

Ultra  Vires 

De  Facto 

Charitable  Trusts 

Ecclesiastical  Corporation 

Joint  Stock  Company 

Limited  Companies 

Limited  Liability 

Regulated  Companies 

Stock  Company 

Dividend 

Director 

Trust 

2.  Law  ok  Property: 

The  term  property  includes  every- 
thing that  is  the  subject  of  possession 
and  ownership,  whether  tangible  or  in- 
tangible. The  various  kinds  of  proper- 
ty are  naturally  divided  into  two  classi- 
fications, Real  and  Personal.  Real 
Property  includes  lands,  tenements, 
and  hereditaments,  and  interests  therein. 
Subjects  dealing  with  the  disposition 
and  incumbrance  of  real  property  inter 
vivos  are  also  placed  under  this  title. 
Personal  Property  includes  all  movable 
objects  of  property,  commonly  known 
aS)  chattels,  and  such  claims,  obligations, 
and  rights  of  action  as  are  the  subject 
of  transfer.  Topics  treating  of  the 
transfer  of  property,  both  real  and  per- 
sonal, by  will  or  descent,  are  classed  un- 


der the  title.  Succession  and  Inheri- 
tance. 

(a)   Real  Property : 

i.  Nature  of  Real  Property : 

Real  Property 

Real  Estate 

Hereditament 

Tenement 

IMines  and  Mining 

Feudalism 

Fee 

Fief 

Feud 

Feu 

Accession 

ii.   Sj'stems  of  Tenure: 

Tenure 

Seisin 

Manor 

Socage 

Frankalmoigne 

Gavelkind 

Ground- Annual 

Demesne 

Ancient  Demesne 

Borough  English 

Burgage  Tenure 

Tenant  Right 

Community  of  Property 

Mortmain 

Subinfeudation 

Sergeant}' 

Landlord  and  Tenant 

Attornment 

Lease 

Leasehold 

Common,  Tenancy'  in 

Tenancy   at   SufFei'ance 

Tenancy  at  Will 

Rent 

Occupancy 

Mining  Claim 


44 


LAW    AND   POLITICAL  SCIENCE 


Life  Estate 
Conditional  Fee 
Remainder 
Reversion 
Freehold 
Dower 
Curtesy 

Entrj',  Right  of 
Entirety 

Equity  of  Redemption 
Equitable  Estate 
Riparian  Rights 

Rivers,  Navigable  and  Non-navi- 
gable 
Inclosures  of  Commons 
Use  and  Occupation 
License 
Pew  Rights 

iii.  Transfer  and  Incumbrance  of  Real 
Property : 

Alienation 

Encumbrance 

Bargain  and  Sale 

Conveyance 

Conveyancing 

Land  Transfer,  Reform  in 

Abstract  of  Title 

Search  of  Title 

Deed 

Habendum 

Restrictive   Covenants 

Conditional  Limitation 

Quit  Claim 

Lease  and  Release 

Demise 

Executory  Devise 

Shifting   Use 

Entail 

Shelley's  Case,  Rule  in 

Enrollment 

Power  of  Appointment 

Power 

Ejectment 


Eviction 

Adverse  Possession 

Common  Assurance 

Elegit,  Estate  by 

Jointure 

Escrow 

Settled  Estate 

Tax  Sale 

Tax  Title 

Cloud  on  Title 

Perpetuity 

Prescription 

Quit  Rent 

Office  Found 

Partition 

INIortgage 

jMerger 

Tacking  of  Mortgages 

Mechanic's  Lien 

Servitude 

Easement 

Equitable   Easement 

Incorporeal 

Equitable  Mortgage 

Building  Loans 

Donis  Conditionalibus 

Domesday  Book 

Recording  Acts 

Recording  of  Deeds 

Torrens  S^'stcm 

Title,  Registration   of 

Title  Insurance 

(b)   Personal  Property: 

i.  Possession : 

Chattel 

Movables 

Confusion 

Treasure-Trove 

Chose  in   Action 

Fixtures 

Emblements 

Est  ray 

Good-Will 


LAW    AND     POLITICAL     SCIENCE 


45 


Oysters,  Law  as  to 
Wreck 

ii.  Patents,  Patent  Law: 

Letters  Patent 

Trademark 

Trade-name 

Copyright 

Literary  Property 

Invention 

Caveat 

iii.  Contracts,  Obligations,  and  Intan- 
gible Property  Rights : 

Contract 

Obligation 

Covenant 

Consideration 

Rescission 

Discharge 

Breach 

Subrogation 

Abrogation 

Suretyship 

Pledge 

Reward 

Guaranty 

Gift 

Claim 

Debt 

Creditor 

Commercial  Law 

Debtor 

Payment 

Chose  in  Action 

Accord  and  Satisfaction 

Assignment 

Donation 

Joint  Ownership 

Sale 

Bill  of  Sale 

Auction 

Market  Overt 

Caveat  Emptor 


Delivery 

Condition  and  Conditional 

Vendor's  Lien 

Lien 

Bailment 

Carrier,  Common 

Baggage 

Bill  of  Lading 

Forwarding 

Consignment 

Stoppage  in  Transitu 

Joint  Adventure 

Freight 

Negotiable  Instruments 

Negotiable  Paper 

Promissory  Note 

Check 

Bill  of  Exchange 

Bank-Bills 

Exchequer  Bills 

Bought  and  Sold  Notes 

Specialty 

Bond 

Stock 

Coupon 

Credit,  Letter  of 

Warehouse  Receipt 

Bottonn'y  Bond 

Guaranty 

Indorsement 

Dishonor 

Exchange 

Interest 

Agent 

Factor 

Partnership 

Mercantile  Agent 

Mercantile  Agency 

Master  and  Servant 

Joint  Liability 

Insurance 

Life  Insurance 

Accident  Insurance 

Wager  Policy 


46 


LAW     AND     POLITICAL     SCIENCE 


Account 

Deposit 

Voucher 

Receipt 

Seal 

Notary  Public 

Acknowledgment 

Debenture 

(c)  Succession  and  Inheritance : 
Decedent 

Estate 

Inheritance 

Intestacy 

Distribution 

Succession  ab  Intestato 

Surveyorship 

Primogeniture 

Inventory 

Administration 

Will 


Testament 

Appraisement 

Legacy 

Residuary  Legacy 

Ademption 

Advancement 

Codicil 

Share 

Beneficiary 

Per  Stirpes 

Devise 

Personal  Representative 

Executor 

Undue  Influence 

Deathbed,  Law  of 

Heir 

Heirloom 

Accumulations 

Lapse 

Posthumous  Ciiild 


B.   iSi^mfbtal  IGaui 


I.  Public  Remedial  Law. 

This  portion  of  the  Adjective,  or  Re- 
medial, Law  deals  with  crimes,  the  pen- 
alties therefor,  and  the  method  of  prose- 
cution of  accused  persons  by  tlie  State. 
We  shall  first  take  up  tiiose  topics  which 
define  particular  crimes,  under  botli 
statutes  and  the  common  law,  and  then 
those  which  deal  with  the  prosecution 
and  punishment  of  crimes.     See: 

Adjective  Law 

1.  Crimes,  Misdemeanors,  etc.: 
Crime 

Criminology 
Criminal  Law 
Jlisdcmeanor 
Accessory 
Accomplice 
Infamy 


Felony 

Barratry 

Blackmail 

Blasphemy 

Body-Snatching 

Bribery 

By-Bidding 

Burglary 

Embezzlement 

Robbery 

Stolen  Goods 

Receiving  Stolen  Goods 

Assault  and  Battery 

Security 

Security  of  Person 

Manslaughter 

Homicide 

Murder 

Malpractice 

Consent 


LAW    AND     POLITICAL     SCIENCE 


47 


Infanticide 

Arson 

Smuggling 

Counterfeiting 

Subornation  of  Perjury 

Compounding  of  Felony 

Suicide 

Misprision 

Treason 

Overt  Act 

Malicious  Mischief 

Extortion 

Forgery 

Sunday 

Gambling 

o 

Disturbance 

Eavesdropping 

Embracery 

Engrossing 

Forestalling 

Monopoly 

Harboring" 

Champerty 

Concealment 

Corrupt  Practices 

Simony 

Piracy 

Policy 

Fornication 

Rape 

Incest 

Rescue 

Riot 

Abortion 

False  Pretenses 

Common  Scold 

Sumptuary  Laws 

Trading  Stamps 

Habitual  Drunkard 

Criminal    Procedure    and    Punish- 
ment of  Crimes: 

Criminal  Procedure 
Arrest 


Arraignment 

Search 

Bench  Warrant 

Search  Warrant 

Writ 

Attainder 
Autrefois  Acquit 

Benefit  of  Clergy 

Capital  Punishment 

Charge  and  Specification 

Commitment 

Corporal  Punishment 

Corruption  of  Blood 

Fine 

Forfeiture 

Hard  Labor 

Information 

Informer 

Justification 

Ordeal 

Outlawry 

Civil  Death 

Peine  Forte  et  Dure 

Penalty 

Posse  Comitatus 

Nolle  Prosequi 

Prisoner 

Prosecution 

Prosecutor 

Voir  Dire 

Punishment 

Self  Defense 

Sentence 

State's  Evidence 

State  Trials 

Ne   Exeat 

Torture 

Extradition 

Locus  Delicti 

f 

II.  Private  Remedial  Law. 

This  division  of  Remedial  Law  in- 
cludes the  law  of  Torts  and  Civil 
Practice    and    Procedure.     Torts    are 


48 


LAW     AND     POLITICAL     SCIENCE 


wrongs  other  than  those  arising  out  of 
contract,  for  which  the  injured  party 
has  a  riecht  of  action.  A  tort  action  is 
not  assignable  and  is  not  strictly  a 
property  right,  and,  therefore,  the  law 
of  torts  is  properly  considered  remedial 
law.  Under  the  title,  Civil  Practice 
and  Procedure,  are  grouped  all  topics 
dealing  with  the  enforcement  of  civil 
rights  of  action  of  a  private  nature. 

1.  ToKTS,  OR  Civil  Wrongs. 

Conversion 

Trespass 

Trover 

Fraud 

Fraudulent  Conveyance 

Infringement 

Slander  of  Title 

Defamation 

Slander 

Libel 

Contribution 

Intimidation 

Accident 

Injury 

Misrepresentation 

Nonfeasance 

Nuisance 

Negligence 

Malfeasance 

False  Imprisonment 

Malicious  Prosecution 

Mayhem 

Pollution  of  Watercourses 

Criminal  Conversation 

Employer's  Liability 

Fellow-Servants 

2.  Civil  Practice  and  Procedure. 

In  English  jurisprudence,  three  dis- 
tinct systems  of  procedure,  correspond- 
ing and  adapted  to  distinct  systems  of 
jurisprudence,  were  developed  respect- 


ively by  the  courts  of  common  law,  the 
courts  of  chancery,  and  the  courts  of 
admiralty.  The  common  law  procedure 
is  much  older  than  the  procedure  in 
either  equity  or  admiralty,  as  practiced 
by  the  English  courts,  the  curia  regis, — 
which  was  the  forerunner  of  the  Eng- 
lish Courts  of  Exchequer,  Common 
Pleas,  and  King's  Bench,  in  which  the 
common  law  procedure  was  developed, — 
having  been  established  in  the  early 
part  of  the  twelfth  century.  Procedure 
in  equity  is  much  simpler  than  pro- 
cedure at  common  law.  Its  essential 
characteristics  are  based  on  the  fact 
that  the  sole  power  of  that  court  is  to 
command  things  to  be  done,  and  not 
directly  to  transfer  or  otherwise  affect 
the  rights  of  litigants.  Procedure  in 
admiralty  was  founded  upon  the  Roman 
law  and  corresponds  in  many  particu- 
lai's  to  the  equity  system.  The  embar- 
rassment experienced  as  a  consequence 
of  the  technical  character  of  the  com- 
mon law  procedure  has  led  to  many 
reforms  by  legislation. 

Action 

Limitation  of  Actions 

Civil  Action 

Civil  Procedure 

Forms  of  Action 

Admii-alty  Law 

Equity 

Procedure 

Practice 

Pleading 

Process 

Code 

Code  Napoleon 

Service  of  Papers  and  Process 

Next  Friend 

Parties 

Name 

Plea 


LAW    AND     POLITICAL     SCIENCE 


49 


Common  Counts 

Common  Forms 

Common  Plcca 

Common  Recovery 

Debt,  Action  of 

Detinue 

Assumpsit 

Foreclosure 

Replevin 

Bill  in  Equity 

Real  Action 

Civil  Death 

Claim 

Lawyer 

Attorney 

Advocate 

Barrister 

Counselor 

Solicitor 

Disbarment 

Client 

PlaintifF 

Defendant 

Respondent 

Joinder 

Writ 

Declaration 

Confession  and  Avoidance 

Answer 

General  Issue 

Verification 

Demurrer 

Disclaimer 

Defense 

Forma  Pauperis,  In 

Cross-Bill 

Confession  of  Judgment 

Case 

Chambers 

Chancery 

Cestui  que  Trust 

Cestui  que  Use 

Master  in  Chancery 

Citation 


Month 

Attachment 

Foreign  Attachment 

Letters  Rogatory 

Lis  Pendens 

Oath 

Notary  Public 

Precept 

Discovery,  Bill  of 

Cognovit 

Cognizance 

Color 

Subpcena 

Recoupment 

Ex  Parte 

Distringas 

Garnishment 

Entry,   Writ  of 

Quia   Timet 

Qui  Tarn  Action 

Interrogatories 

Affidavit 

Bill  of  Particulars 

Certiorari 

Habeas  Corpus 

Habeas  Corpus  Act 

Inquiry,  Writ  of 

Inquisition 

In  Personam 

In  Rem 

Interpretation 

Interpleader 

Injunction 

Prohibition 

Special  Proceeding 

Specific  Performance 

Trustee  Process 

Warrant 

Quo  Warranto 

Intervention 

Invoice 

Bill  of  Peace 

Acknowledgment 

Civil  Damage  Acts 


50                LAW     AND 

POLITICAL     SCIENCE 

Forcible  Entry  and  Detainer 

Proof 

District  Attorney 

Handwriting 

Hilary   Term 

Testimony 

Oyer  and  Terminer 

Privilege 

Venue 

Privileged  Communication 

Judicature  Acts 

Laches 

Jurisdiction 

Dictum 

Judge 

Precedent 

Jury 

Res  Ad  judicata 

Challenge 

Presumption 

Judge  Advocate 

Declaration  or  Affirmation 

Oyer 

Alteration 

Stay 

Access 

Stare  Decisis 

Ambiguity 

Damages 

Argument 

Day 

Verdict 

Marshalling 

Special  Verdict 

Trial 

Scotch  Verdict 

Mistrial 

Judgment 

Nonsuit 

Award 

Incident 

Appeal 

Judicial  Notice 

Bill  of  Costs 

Evidence 

Taxation  of  Costs 

Exception 

Bill  of  Exceptions 

Circumstantial  Evidence 

Execution 

Burden  of  Proof 

Supersedeas 

Condonation 

Exemption 

Admission 

Sequestration 

Examination 

Distress 

Cross  Examination 

Equitable  Assets 

Witness 

Receiver 

Expert 

Winding  Up  of  Company 

C.   dlttt^ntatimtal  Ham 


The  subjects  or  persons  of  Interna- 
tional Law  arc  independent  sovereign 
States  or  nations.  The  community  con- 
stituting such  State  is  permanently  es- 
tablished for  a  political  end,  is  pos- 
sessed of  a  defined  territory,  and  is 
independent  of  external  control.  If 
one  or  more  of  these  elements  be  lack- 


ing, the  community  is  not  a  State  in  the 
sense  of  International  Law.  Individ- 
uals choose  their  associates,  and  States 
likewise  determine  whetiier  and  when 
they  wish  to  maintain  relations  with  a 
newcomer.  A  fundamental  proposition 
of  International  Law  is  the  ocjuality 
of  States,  of  which  Chief  Justice  Mar- 


LAW    AND     POLITICAL     SCIENCE 


51 


shall  said :  "  No  principle  of  general 
law  is  more  universally  acknowledged 
than  the  perfect  equality  of  nations. 
Russia  and  Geneva  have  equal  rights. 
It  results  from  this  equality  that  no 
one  can  rightfully  impose  a  rule  on 
another."      Sec : 

Treaty 

Treaty  Rights 

Diplomacy 

Diplomatic  Agents 

Envoy 

Embassy 

Ambassador 

Neutrality 

Enemy 

Embargo 

Blockade 

Contraband 

Mare  Clausum 

High  Seas 

Territorial  Waters 

Seashore 


Tide  Waters 

Bering  Sea  Controversy 

Extraterritoriality 

Prescription 

Privateering 

Piracy 

Award 

Convoy 

Extradition 

Foreign  Judgment 

Foreign  Law 

War 

Truce 

Acts  of  Hostility 

Comity  of  Nations- 

Mainprize 

Navigation,  Freedom  of 

Navigation  Laws 

Recaptui'e 

Retaliation 

Rules  of  the  Road 

Salvage 

Seamen,   Laws   Relating  to 


D.   ^\sX\^x^  aub   iHtsrrllauii 


1.  Agrarian  Law: 
Anglo-Saxon  Law 
Customary  Law 
Common  Law 
Civil  Law 

Civil  Church  Law 
Twelve  Tables 
Salic  Law 
Scotch  Law 
Spanish  Law 
Oleron,  Laws  of 
Law  ]Merchant 

2.  Parliamentary  Law: 
Revised  Statutes 
Medical  Jurisprudence 
Maxims 


Legal  Education 

3.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the 
names  in  the  ranks  of  jurists,  law3'ers, 
and  publicists  of  all  time : 

Austin,  John 
Betts,  S.  R. 
Binnej',  Horace 
Black,  J.  S. 
Blackstone,  William 
Bluntschli,  J.  K. 
Bodin,  J. 

Bracton,  Henry  de 
Brougham,  Lord 
Campbell,  John 
Choatc,  Rufus 
Coke,   Edward 


52 


LAW     AND     POLITICAL     SCIENCE 


Cooley,  T.  M. 
Curtis,  G.  T. 
Ellsworth,  Oliver 
Erskine,  Lord 
Fearne,  Chas. 
Feucrbach,  P.  J.  A. 
Field,  D.  D. 
Field,  S.  J. 
Filangieri,  G. 
Fortescue,  John 
Gans,  E. 
Glanvill 
Grotius,  Hugo 
Hale,  IVIatthew 
Holt,  John 
Janet,  Paul 
Jeffreys,  Lord 
Johnson,  Reverdy 
Kent,  James 
Laboulaye,  E.  L. 
Lamar,  L.  Q.  C. 
Lanadell,  C.  C. 


Lieber,  Francis 
Livingston,  Edward 
Lowell,  A.  L. 
Maine,  Henry 
Mansfield,  Earl 
Marshall,  John 
Montesquieu,  C. 
Moore,  J.  B. 
Pardessus,  J.  M. 
Parsons,  Theophilus 
Plowden,  E. 
Pollock,  F. 
Portahs,  J.  E.  M. 
Pufendorf,  S. 
Savigny,   F.   K. 
Smith,  Goldwin 
Stephen,  J.  F. 
Story,  J. 
Taney,  R.  B. 
Tocqueville,  A.  C. 
Wharton,  F. 
Woolscy,  T.  D. 


QII|apt^r  3.    ®I|^  i^nrml  BtimttB 


SOCIAL  science  presents  a  theoretical  and  a  practical  aspect,  of  which 
the  latter,  at  tlie  present  time,  is  the  more  important.  Speculation 
I  on  the  origins  of  social  life,  the  evolution  of  social  institutions,  and 
the  nature  of  existing  social  bonds  has  been  rich  in  theories,  diverse 
in  view,  but  casting  light  on  all  the  course  of  human  development. 
Society  has  been  variously  regarded  as  an  aggregate,  an  organization,  or  an 
organism,  and  accordingly  as  it  has  been  regarded  its  rights  and  duties  as 
against  the  individual  have  been  outlined.  The  influence  of  the  collective  body 
and  the  collective  mind  on  the  body  and  mind  of  the  individual  forms  one  of  the 
most  fascinating  topics  of  sociology,  fascinating  because  of  the  close  connection 
that  may  be  established  between  individual  and  social  progress.  But  as  yet 
scarcely  sufficient  material  has  been  collected  to  make  social  theory  strictly 
scientific,  and  the  greater  interest,  probably,  attaches  to  what  has  been  called  the 
practical  aspect  of  social  science,  the  study,  namely,  of  contemporary  social  con- 
ditions and  the  problems  which  they  create.  Thus  it  would  not  be  far  from  the 
truth  to  call  practical  sociology,  social  pathology,  for  as  a  matter  of  fact  the 
attention  of  the  working  sociologist  is  directed,  in  greater  part,  to  the  study  of 
the  ills  of  the  social  body,  a  study  of  those  individuals  and  classes  of  individuals 
whose  presence  in  the  midst  of  society  is  a  burden  or  a  source  of  danger  to  society 
or  the  cause  of  misery  to  themselves.  In  tliis  respect  social  science  deals  with 
the  helpless  and  the  vicious  and  is  largely  coincident  with  humanitarianism. 
Theoretical  sociology  is  most  closely  allied  to  Anthropology  and  History,  going 
to  the  latter  for  its  evolutionary  data  and  to  the  former  for  origins.  Practical 
sociology  depends  very  largely  on  statistics. 


A.    ^crifllnQij 


I.  The  methods  and  theories  of  so-  of  the  sociologist,  such  as  the  Family, 

ciology    are    treated    at    length    under  IMarriagc,  the  Tribe,  etc.,  will  be  found 

that  heading,  supplemented  Ijy   minor  in  the  chapter  on   Anthropology   and 

articles    on     subsidiary    topics.      This  Kthnolog}'. 
article,  therefore,  should  be  made  the 

starting  point  on  reading.     See:  II-   1-  Taking  human  aggregates  as 

its  subject  matter,  practical   sciology 

Sociology  ^j,^^^.^  ^j,g  greatest  uses  from  statistics. 

Man,  Science  of  The  gathering  of  statistical  data  is  be- 

Anthropo-geography  ^^^     initiated     wherever     governments 

Acchmatization  j^^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^i,^j  ^^  ^^^^^^  ^,^^  ^^^^^ 

Environment  ^^^    ^,^^^^    ^^^j^j    enunciations    pre- 

''^  vail    their    scope    is    constantly    being 

A  discussion  of  various  social  insti-  widened.     The  study  of  population  is 

tutions  which  form  part  of  the  data  now  well  advanced.     See : 

53 


54 


THE     SOCIAL     SCIENCES 


Demography 

Census 

Population 

Vital  Statistics 

Births,  Registration  of 

Illiteracj' 

Immigration 

Emigration 

Naturalization 

Suicide 

Statistics 

2.  "  Dependents,  Defectives,  De- 
linquents," adequately  describes  the 
subjects  dealt  with  by  the  social 
pathologists.  In  this  immensely  broad 
field,  private  efforts  co-operate  with 
State  activity,  the  former  thi-ough  in- 
vestigations and  advocacy  largely,  the 
latter  through  remedial  legislation  and 
the  use  of  State  resources.  For  a 
study  of  the  dependent  and  defective 
classes,  see: 

Dependents,  Defectives,  Delinquents 

Social  Debtor  Classes 

Pauperism 

Poor  Laws 

Poor  Rate 

Casual  Poor  , 

IMendicancy 

Tramp 

Workhouse 

Almshouse 

Charities 

Charities    and    Correction,   National 

Conference  of 
Cliarity  Organization  Society 
Brinkcrhoff,  Roeliff 
Elberfeld  System 
Blind,  Education  of  the 
Howe,  S.  G. 

Deaf  Mute  (Institutions) 
Gallaudet,  E.  M. 
Insane  Asylum 


Bedlam 
Degeneracy 
Jukes,  The 

3.  Of  dependent  classes,  children, 
naturally,  absorb  a  large  share  of  the 
attention  of  the  sociologist  and  the 
charity  woi'ker.  The  mission  here  is 
not  one  of  relief  only,  but  of  redemp- 
tion, and  successful  effort  in  this  field 
discounts  future  dangers  to  society. 
See: 

Dependent  Children 

Foundling  Hospital 

Creche 

Marbeau,  J.  B. 

Infant  School 

Ragged  Schools 

Rauhes  Haus 

George  Junior  Republic 

Parks  and  Playgrounds 

Juvenile  Offenders 

Children,  Societies  for 

Cruelty  to  Children,  Prevention  of 

Children's  Aid  Society 

4.  Suflicient  reason  exists  for 
speaking  of  a  criminal  class  to  make 
Criminology  an  independent  branch 
of  investigation  with  something  of  the 
methodology  of  a  science.  The  de- 
linquent, the  criminal,  is  regarded  as 
at  war  with  society.  The  causes  that 
have  changed  tlie  coiu'se  of  nature  in 
him  and  made  him  anti-social  may  be 
heredity  or  cnviromncnt  or  Ixitli.  The 
prevention  and  punisliment  of  crime 
and  the  possible  reformation  of  the 
criminal  form  the  subject  matter  of 
the  "science."     See: 

Criminology 
Lombroso,  Ccsare 
Bertillon  System 


THE     SOCIAL     SCIENCES 


55 


Punishment 
Corporal  Punishment 
Flogging 
Penology 

Capital  Punishment 
Prisons 
Convict 
Convict  Labor 
Clinton  State  Prison 
Newgate 
Fleet  Prison 
Millbank  Prison 
Bicetre 
Conciergcrie 
Transportation,  Penal 
Botany  Bay 
Bagnes 
Recidivists 
Reformatories 
Elmira  Reformatory 
Brockway,  Z.  R. 
Ticket  of  Leave 
Mettray 
Beccaria,  C.  B. 
Howard,  John 
Round,  W.  M. 
Fliedner,  T. 
Fry,  Elizabeth 

Prison    Association    of    the    LTnited 
States 

5.  The  vices  of  individuals,  as  well 
as  of  classes,  affect  the  welfare  of  the 
body  politic,  (a)  The  standard  of 
personal  purity  is  rising  with  the 
general  heightening  in  moral  tone, 
(b)  The  evils  resulting  from  the  abuse 
of  liquor  have  led  to  one  of  tlie  most 
notable  movements  of  the  nineteenth 
century.     See : 

{a)   Family 
Marriage 
Celibacy 
Illegitimacy 


Bastard 
Prostitution 

(b)  Intoxication 

Temperance 

Prohibition 

Local  Option 

Gotiienburg  System 

Abstinence  Societies 

Mathew,   T. 

Loyal  Temperance  League 

Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union 

World's  Woman's  Christian  Tem- 
perance Union 

6.  The  problem  of  remedying  so- 
cial evil  has  drawn  the  attention  of 
men  in  all  ages,  and  thinkers  have  been 
fond  of  busying  themselves  with  tlie 
construction  of  ideal  forms  of  society 
since  the  days  of  Plato.  ]\Iore  than 
philosophers'  dreams,  however,  are  the 
great  social  movements  of  modem 
times,  whose  aim  is  the  reorganization 
of  society  on  a  different  basis  than  that 
of  the  present — private  property. 

(a)  For  the  literary  Utopias,  see: 

Plato   (The  Republic) 
Campanella    (The    City   of   the 

Sun) 
INIore,  Thomas   (Utopia) 
Harrington,   James    (Oceana) 
Bellamy,       Edward       (Looking 

Backward  ) 

(b)  For  Communism,  see: 

Communism 
Communistic  Societies 
Shakers 
Owen,  Robert 
Harmonists 
New  Harmony 
Cabet,  Etienne 
Icarians 


56 


THE     SOCIAL     SCIENCES 


Brook  Farm 

Hopedale 

Oneida  Community 

Zoar  Comniunity 

Koreshan  Ecclesia 

Amana 

Noyes,  J.  H. 

Perfectionists 

(c)  For  Socialism,  see: 

Socialism 
Collectivism 
Fourierism 
Nationalism 
National  Workshops 
Saint-Simon,  C.  H. 
Fourier,  F.  M.  C. 
Rodbertus,  J. 
Enfantin,  B.  P. 
Bazard,  A. 
Considerant,  V.  P. 
Babcuf,  F.  N. 
Proudhon,  P.  J. 
Blanc,  J.  J.  I. 
Marx,  Karl 
Lassalle,  F. 
Engels,  F. 
Internationale 
Weitling,  W. 
Liebknecht,  W. 
Bebel,  F.  A. 
Vollmar,  G.  H. 
Bernstein,  E. 
Malon,  B. 
Godin,  J.  B.  A. 
James,  E.  J. 
Millerand,  A. 
Gronlund,  Lawrence 
Morris,  VVm. 
Hyndman,  H.  M. 
Fabian  Society 
Nicuwcnhuis,  D. 

(d)  For  Anarchism,  see: 

Anarchist 


Bakunin,  M. 
Most,  Johann 
Nihilism 
Michel,  Louise 

(e)   For    quasi-socialistic     movements, 
see: 

(a)  jMunicipal  Ownership 
Single  Tax 
George,  Henry 

(b)  Cooperation 
Rochdale  Pioneers 
Consumers'  League 
Profit  Sharing 
Leclaire,  E.  J. 

7.  Socialism  is  heterodox  in  exalt- 
ing the  State  over  the  individual,  yet 
there  is  rapidly  growing  recognition 
of  the  right  of  the  State  to  intervene 
for  the  protection  of  the  working 
classes,  and  to  assume  functions  tend- 
ing to  furtiier  their  welfare.     See: 

Factory  Inspection 
Labor  Legislation 
Child  Labor 
Sweating  System 
Lodging-Houses 
Housing  Problem 
Tenement  House  Problem 
Bath  Houses,  Municipal 
Postal  Savings  Banks 
Old  Age  Pensions 
Vacant  Lot  Farming 

8.  A  recent  development  of  social 
work  is  the  settlement  house  established 
in  the  congested  district  of  great  cities 
to  act  as  a  centre  of  phj'sical  and 
moral  uplifting.       See: 

Social  Settlements 
People's  Palace 
Toynheo,  Arnold 
Hull  House 
Addams,  Jane 


THE     SOCIAL     SCIENCES 


57 


Boys'  Clubs 
Fresh-Air  Work 

See  also:  Salvation  Army;  Booth, 
Charles  ;  Pullman  ;  Krupp  Foundries, 
Social  Work  at. 

9.  For  a  problem  specifically  Amer- 
ican, see: 

Negro  in  America 

Negro  Education 

Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural 

Institute 
Tuskegee    Normal    and    Industrial 

Institute 
Washington,  Booker  T. 

Societies  in  the  narrow  sense,  asso- 
ciations, that  is,  of  individuals,  for  the 
attainment  of  a  common  aim,  have 
always  existed,  illustrating  in  the 
miniature  the  gregarious  nature  of 
man.  Their  purpose  may  be  various, 
social,  political,  religious,  educational, 
or  protective.     See  for  types  of  each: 

Societies 

Club 

Benefit  Societies 

Friendly  Society 

Building  and  Loan  Associations 

Secret  Associations 

Burschenschaft 

Carbonari 

Fenian  Society 

Patriotic  Societies 

Orders 

Templars,  Knights 

Hospitalers 

Brotherhoods,  Religious 


Jesuits 

Societies  for  Ethical  Culture 

Fraternities,   American    College 

Academy 

Institute  of  France 

Royal  Society 

Historical  Associations,  American 

Masons,  Free 

Odd  Fellows,  Independent  Order  of 

Pythias,  Knights  of 

Elks,  Benevolent  and  Protective 
Order  of 

Hibernians,  Ancient  Order  of 

10.  A  partial  list  only  of  writers 
and  investigators  in  sociology  would 
include : 

Althusius,  Johannes 

Amnion,  Otto 

Barth,  Paul 

Buckle,  Henry  T. 

Fairbanks,  Arthur 

Folks,  Homer 

Giddings,  F.  H. 

Gumplowicz,  Ludwig 

Henderson,  C.  R. 

Kidd,  Benjamin 

Le  Bon,  G. 

Le  Play,  P. 

Lloyd,  Henry  D. 

Schaffle,  A. 

Schulze-Delitzsch,  H. 

Stuckcnbcrg,  J. 

Tarde,  G. 

Ward,  Lester  F. 

Webb,  Sidney 

Wines,  F.  H. 

Worms,  Rene 


B.    Pnltttral    iErnnnmii 


Political  Economy  has  been  briefly  planation  of  the  peculiar  sense  in 
defined  as  the  science  of  wealth,  but  which  the  term  wealth  is  emplo3'ed. 
this   definition   requires   a   further   ex-     Wealth  has  been  defined  as  the  bodj'  of 


58 


THE     SOCIAL     SCIENCES 


things  that  have  value,  but  here  again 
value  in  the  economic  sense  has  a  nar- 
rower meaning  than  in  ordinary  use. 
Value,  in  economic  discussion,  usually 
means  power  in  exchange,  that  is,  the 
power  of  a  commodity  to  command 
other  commodities  in  exchange.  Such 
attempts  at  brief  definition,  however, 
are  not  satisfactoi'y,  since  each  pri- 
mary concept  of  the  science  is  itself 
the  text  for  long  discussion.  The  best 
introduction  to  the  subject  will  be 
found  in  the  article.  Political  Econ- 
omy, which  outlines  clearly  the  content 
or  scope,  the  relation  of  political 
economy  to  other  brandies  of  study, 
and  the  methods  of  investigation  or 
arrangement  that  it  employ's. 

I.  The  fundamental  principles 
should  then  be  studied  by  reference 
to  the  following  articles : 

Wealth 

Production 

Labor 

Division  of  Labor 

Wages 

Standard  of  Living 

Capital 

Interest 

Usury 

Rent 

Single  Tax 

Metayer 

Profit 

Monopoly 

Speculation 

Consumption 

Value 

The  history  of  economic  tliought 
should  bo  studied  next.  In  ancient 
and  mcdiicval  times  ])olitical  economy 
was  not  marked  off  from  otiier  l)ranches 
of  learning,  and  no  attempt  was  made 


to  study  it  systematically.  From  the 
historical  paragraphs  in  the  article, 
Political  Economy,  it  will  be  seen 
that  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  phi- 
losophers, as  well  as  to  tiie  media?val 
churchmen  the  laws  of  trade  were  of 
interest  mainly  in  their  moral  bearings. 
Even  in  the  eigliteenth  century,  when 
some  of  its  principles  were  understood, 
and  something  like  a  systematic  study 
was  attempted,  its  scope  and  import- 
ance were  not  realized.  It  was  re- 
garded as  a  branch  of  statecraft.  Not 
private  wealth,  but  the  best  means  of 
increasing  financial  power  of  the  state 
was  the  main  object  of  investigation. 
For  an  account  of  the  various  systems 
of  economic  thought,  and  the  contri- 
butions of  individual  economists,  see 
the  following : 

IMercantilism 

Physiocrats 

Laissez-Faire 

Manchester  School 

Free  Trade 

Quesnay,  F. 

Smith,  Adam 

Ricardo,  D. 

Malthus,  T.  R. 

Thiinen,  J.  H.  von 

Say,  J.  B.' 

Carey,  H.  C. 

Bastiat,  F. 

Mill,  J.  S. 

Cairnes,  J. 

Jevons,  W.  S. 

Walker,  F.  A. 

Marshall,  Alfred 

Boehm  von  Bawerk,  E. 

Clark,  J.  B. 

Wagner,  Adolf 

Schmollcr,  G. 

Menger,  K. 

Nicholson,  J.  S. 


THE     SOCIAL     SCIENCES 


59 


Patten,  S.  N. 

Obviously  the  study  of  past  eco- 
nomic conditions  is  essential  to  an 
undcrstandin<if  of  the  present.  On  the 
general  subject  of  Industrial  Evolu- 
tion consult  the  following: 

Manufactures 

House  Industry 

Mir 

Guild 

Hanscatic  League 

Merchants  Adventurers 

Mercantilism 

Physiocrats 

Industrial  Revolution 

Factories 

(See  United  States,  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  etc.,  for  eco- 
nomic evolution  of  those  coun- 
tries.) 

II.  Reading  the  above  topics  in 
the  order  given  will  have  supplied  the 
theoretical  and  historical  basis  for  the 
study  of  actual  conditions,  practical 
questions,  and  proposed  measures  of 
reform,  which  are  arranged  logically 
in  the  following  lists : 

1.  Trade  AND  Transportation  : 
Commerce 
Barter 

Chamber  of  Commerce 
Imports  and  Exports 
International  Trade 
Balance  of  Trade 
Stock  Exchange 
Crisis,  Economic 
Speculation 
Transportation 
Railways 

Interstate  Commerce  Act 
Municipal  Ownership 
See  also  statistics  of  Commerce  and 


Railways  under  the  various  countries, 
as  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
Chile,  etc. 

2.  Labor  and  Capital: 

Trade  Unions 

Labor  Organizations 

Knights  of  Labor 

Labor,  American  Federation  of 

Railway  Brotherhoods 

Typographical  Union  of  North 
America 

Letter-Carriers,  National  Associa- 
tion of 

Metal  Trades  Association 

Miners,  Western  Federation  of 

Mine  Workers  of  America 

Labor  Representation  Committee 

Strikes  and  Lockouts 

Industrial  Arbitration  and  Concilia- 
tion 

Eight- Hour  Day 

Standard  of  Living 

Union  Label 

Boycotting 

Labor  Problems 

Labor  Colonies 

Labor  Congresses 

Industrial  Revolution 

Sweating  System 

Employment   Bureau 

Labor  Exchanges 

Labor,  Bureaus  of    . 

Employer's  Liability 

3.  Governmental    Regulation    and 

Encouragement  of  Commerce 
and  Industry: 

Protection 

Customs  Duties 

Tariff 

Drawback 

Warehousing  System 

Mercantilism 


60 


THE     SOCIAL     SCIENCES 


Hamilton,  Alexander 
List,  Friedrich 
Balance  of  Trade 
Com  Laws 

Anti-Corn-Law  League 
Cobden  Club 
Reciprocity 
Shipping  Subsidies 
Coasting  Trade 
Interstate  Commerce  Act 
Monopoly 
Trusts 

4.  Money  and  Credit  : 
Money 

Precious  IMetals 

Foreign  Money 

Numismatics 

Index  Numbers 

Tabular  Standard 

Bimetallism 

Latin  Union 

Monetary  Conferences 

Monetary  Commission 

Gresham,  Sir  Thomas 

Grcsham's  Law 

Greenbacks 

Currency 

Greenback  Party 

Specie    Payments,    Suspension    and 

Resumption  of 
Fiat  Money 
Credit 

Bank,  Banking 
Clearing-Housc 
Trust  Companies 
Bill  of  Exchange 
Credit  Foncicr 
Mortgage  Banks 
Land  Banks 

5.  Taxation  and  Finance; 
Finance 

Tax,  Taxation 
Debt,  Public 


Repudiation 

Tariff 

Customs  Duties 

Excise 

Internal  Revenue  System 

Budget 

Income  Tax 

Land  Tax 

Special  Assessment 

Single  Tax 

See  also  sections  on  Finance  under 
the  various  countries,  as  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  Brazil,  etc. 

6.  Insurance  and   Savings  Institu- 
tions : 

Insurance 

Life  Insurance 

Fraternal  Insurance 

Friendly  Societies 

Workingmcn's  Insurance 

Tontine 

Undervvriter 

Annuity 

Savings  Banks 

Post  Office  Savings  Bank 

Trust  Companies 

Building  and  Loan  Associations 

7.  Among  prominent  economists 
in  addition  to  those  already  named  in 
the  lists,  are  the  following : 

Adams,  H.  C. 
Atkinson,  Edward 
Bagehot,  Walter 
Bastahlc,  C.  F. 
Bastiat,  F. 
Chevalier,  M. 
Ely,  R.  T. 
Faucher,   J. 
Fawcctt,  Henry 
Ferraris,  C.  F. 
Garnicr,  J.  C. 
Jenks,  J.  W. 


THE     SOCIAL     SCIENCES  61 

Laughlin,  J.  L.  Seligman,  E.  R.  A. 

Leroy-Beaulieu,  P.  P.                                   Senior,  N.  W. 

Levasseur,  E.  Soetbecr,  A. 

Levi,  L.  Sumner,  W.  G. 

Loria,  A.  Taussig,  F.  W. 

McCulloch,  J.  R.  Wright,  C.  D. 

Oncken,  August 

Rau,  K.  H.  8.  For  Economic  and  Social  Re- 

Roscher,  W.  form    Movements,    see    section    6    of 

Say,  L.  the  preceding  division  (Sociology). 


Qlljapt^r  4.  Anttfrnpnlngji 


TAKEN  in  its  broadest  signification,  Anthropology,  the  science  of 
i\Ian,  would  include  within  its  scope  all  the  sciences  and  arts  as 
dealing  with  particular  phases  only  of  the  history  of  human  life 
on  earth.  Physiology,  Psychology,  Philosophy,  Linguistics 
and  Literature  would  then  be  proper  fields  of  stud}-  for  the 
anthropologist,  as  to  a  large  extent  they  are.  But  the  field  of  human  knowl- 
edge is  so  broad,  and  the  scope  of  every  particular  science  in  fact  so  exten- 
sive, that  in  the  nature  of  things  no  single  mind  can  at  the  present  day  carry  on 
the  work  of  scientific  investigation  in  moi'e  than  a  limited  field  of  inquiry.  Prac- 
tically, therefore,  anthropology,  with  its  allied  science  of  ethnology,  has  become 
the  study  of  a  man  as  a  zoological  genus,  and  secondly,  the  study  of  the  origins  of 
culture  as  deduced  from  ancient  remains  and  the  testimony  afforded  by  surviving 
savage  races  whose  life  has  as  yet  undergone  no  such  differentiation  as  to  put  it 
beyond  the  study  of  a  single  mind.  Among  them  are  sought  the  germs  of 
present  institutions  and  beliefs,  which  are  followed  up  until  they  become  the 
things  of  which  history  takes  cognizance.  Primitive  life,  then,  is  largely  the 
subject  of  anthropology  which  deals  also  with  survivals  of  primitive  modes  of  life 
and  methods  of  thought  in  our  own  times.  Thus  the  topic  of  Folklore  and 
Customs  falls  fairly  within  its  field.     See: 


Man,  Science  of 

Anthropology 

Ethnography 

1.  The  study  of  human  anatomy 
and  physiology  is  of  primary  import- 
ance in  the  science  of  man.  On  the 
basis  of  morphological  and  physi- 
ological peculiarities,  various  classi- 
fications of  mankind  have  been  made, 
and  our  knowledge  of  prehistoric  man 
is  largely  a  matter  of  skulls  and  thigh 
bones.  The  measurement  of  the  hu- 
man body  has  become  a  science  in 
itself.      See : 

Somatology 

Craniometry 

Skin 

Mongolian  Spots 

Anthropometry 

Melanism  and  Albinism 

ILiir 

Giants 


Dwarf 

Skull 

2.  Remains  of  prehistoric  man  have 
been  found  in  both  hemispheres,  but 
most  plentifully  in  Europe.  Ingenious 
comparative  studies  allow  us  to  arrive 
at  a  fair  conception  of  the  physical 
characteristics  of  the  earliest  inhabi- 
tants of  the  world.     See : 

Barrow 

Mound-Builders 

Megalithic  Monuments 

Dolmen 

Avebury 

Stonchengc 

Spy 

Chellcan 

Cro-Magnon 

Furfooz  Ilace 

Ilallstatt  Epoch 

Madeleine,  La 


62 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


63 


Mousterian  Epoch 
Neanderthal  ]Maii 
Lansing  Man 
Kitchen-Midden 

3.  For  the  great  (hvisions  of  man- 
kind determined  on  the  basis  of  phys- 
ical characteristics  and  geographical 
distribution.     See: 

Caucasian  Race 
Europe,  Peoples  of 
]\Iediterrancan  Race 
Mongolian  Race 
Negro 

Indian  Peoples 
Malayan  Peoples 
Melanesians 
Indians,  American, 
Mixed  Races 

4.  On  the  question  of  the  origin  of 
mankind  there  has  been  much  disputa- 
tion among  anthropologists  with  little 
positive  results.       See: 

Evolution 
Pithecanthropus 

5.  ]\Ian  has  nowhere  been  found 
in  complete  isolation.  From  the  first 
he  appears  as  the  social  being  with  his 
life  conditioned  by  the  co-existence  of 
others  of  his  kind.  Co-existence 
meant  likeness  of  thought  and  exper- 
ience and  the  necessity  of  intercom- 
munication. Our  interest,  therefore, 
turns  to  language.     Sec : 

Language 
Philology 
Gesture  Language 
Sign  Language 
Writing 
Hieroglyphics 
Cuneiform  Inscriptions 
Wampum 

6.  In     common     with     the     animals 


man  is  early  engaged  in  a  struggle  for 
the  material  needs  of  existence,  with 
greater  needs  to  satisfy,  however,  than 
the  animals,  and  consequently  with 
growing  resources. 

(n)   The  desire  for  food  is  the  primal 
motive  in   life.      See : 
Cannibalism 
Geophagy 
Cookery 
Pottery 

(b)  According   to    the    nature    of   the 

phj'sical  conditions  amidst 
which  he  dwelt,  man  found 
shelter  for  himself.     See : 

Tent 

Wigwam 

Cave-Dwellcrs 

Cliff-Dweller 

Mesa 

Earth  Lodge 

Lake  Dwellings 

Arcliieology,  American 

Casa  Grande 

Oaxaca,  Ruins  of 

Palenque 

Nomad 

Gypsies 

(c)  Dress,  it  is  well  established,  came 

from  no  need  of  protecting 
the  body,  but  had  its  origin 
in  ornament.     Sec : 

Dress 

Tattooing 
Headdress 
Hairdressing 

7.  IMan  entered  upon  a  rapid 
course  of  development  when,  in  his 
search  for  sustenance  and  shelter,  he 
began  the  use  of  tools.      See : 

(a)   For .  Implements : 
Flint  Implements 


64 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


Celt 

Stone  Age 
Bronze,  Age  of 
Archaeology,  American 
Calumet 

(6)   For  Weapons: 

Arrow 

Blowgun 

Tomahawk 

Boomerang 

Scalping 

For  the  beginnings  of  the  agricultural 
stage,  see : 
Agriculture 
Plow 
Domestic  Animals 

8.  The  religion  of  primitive  man  is 
essentially  the  belief  in  a  universally 
animated  world,  a  world  of  spirits,  to 
combat  and  placate  whom  is  the  busi- 
ness of  his  life.      See: 

Man,  Science  of 

Superstition 

Religion,  Comparative 

Magic 

Necromancy 

Legerdemain 
■    Oracle 

Nature-Worship 

Fire-Worshlp 

Phallicism 

Fetishism 

Shamanism 

Amulet 

Manitou 

Demonology 

Demoniac 

Satanism 

Voodoo 

Ghosts 

Fast 

Sacrifice 


9.  Birth  and  death  are  naturally 
portentous  phenomena  to  the  primitive 
mind,  and  are  marked,  death  especially, 
by  various  ceremonies.  In  case  of 
death  the  rites  connect  themselves  with 
the  belief  in  existence  beyond  the  grave. 
See: 

Couvade 

Circumcision 

Teknonymy 

Infanticide 

Mortuary  Customs 

Burial 

Cist-burial 

Suttee 

Coffin 

10.  The  origin  of  the  family  rela- 
tion is  a  subject  of  much  controversy; 
but  it  seems  to  be  well  established  that 
preceding  the  present  organization  of 
the  family  under  the  authority  of  the 
father  and  conditioned  by  the  element 
of  property,  mankind  passed  through 
a  stage  in  which  the  family  centered 
around  the  mother,  in  whom  authority 
was  vested,  and  from  whom  descent 
was  traced.      See : 

Marriage 

Matriarchate 

Partriarchate 

Polygamy 

Polyandry 

Leviratc  Marriage 

Clan 

Tribe 

Totemism 

Caste 

Exogamy 

Miscegenation 

Slavery 

n.  Primitive  morality  is  utilitar- 
ian and  narrow  in  the  scope  of  its  ap- 
plication :    right   and   justice    as   such 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


65 


do  not  exist ;  beneficence  to  fellow 
members  of  a  group,  hostility  to  all 
others,  is  the  rule.  With  time  only 
the  field  of  beneficence  widens  to  tribe, 
nation,  and  mankind.  Primitive  law 
is  summed  up  in  custom.     See: 

Law 

Custom 

Taboo 

12.  Energy  not  directed  towards 
the  direct  satisfaction  of  material 
wants  finds  expression  among  savages 
in  games  and  sports.  Add  to  the 
pleasure  derived  from  active  exercise 
the  desire  to  afford  pleasure  to  others, 
having  its  roots  in  the  social  nature  of 
man,  and  we  have  the  beginnings  of 
the  arts.  Esthetics,  modern  re- 
search goes  to  show,  had  its  origin  in 
play.     See : 

Art,  Primitive 

^Esthetics 

Swastika 

Festivals 

Dancing 

Corroboree 

Sun  Dance 

Snake  Dance 

Music 

Areois 

Potlatch 

13.  The  survival  of  primitive 
thought  in  custom,  legend,  superstition, 
and  common  practices  shows  how  con- 
tinuous is  the  line  of  development  from 
the  mental  life  of  primitive  man  to  our 
own.  For  the  entire  subject  of  folk 
lore,  see : 

Folklore 
Nursery  Lore 
Nursery  Rhymes 
Superstition 
Magic 


Witchcraft 

Incantation 

Vampire 

Werwolf 

Griffin 

Dragon 

Unicorn 

Mermaid 

Fairy 

Morgan,  the  Fay 

Avalon 

Goblins 

Oberon 

Puck 

Robin  Goodfcllow 

Baring-Gould,   S. 

14!.  The  data  of  anthropology  have 
been  collected  from  many  sources,  and 
the  outline  of  the  principles  of  the 
science  may  be  filled  in  with  concrete 
detail,  by  referring  to  the  many  de- 
scriptive articles  on  the  primitive  peo- 
ples. Of  the  most  interesting  primi- 
tive groups  for  the  anthropologists,  a 
partial  list  would  be  the  following: 

(a)  For     America,     see     Indians, 

American,  an  elaborate  study 
which  may  be  carried  into 
great  detail  by  following  out 
the  cross  references  to  every 
tribe  of  North,  Central,  and 
South  America.  See  also  Es- 
kimo. 

(b)  For  Asia: 

Aeta ;    also    Philippine    Islands 

Aino 

Andamanese  (under  Andamans) 

Sundanese  (under  Sunda  Islands) 

Dyak 

Gonds 

Gurkhas 

Khonds 


66 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


Karens 

Mois 

Miao-Tse 

Shans 

Thai 

Todas 

Veddas 

Baluchis    (under    Baluchistan) 

Bhil 

Bedouin 

Kurds 

Buriats  • 

Giliaks 

Kahnucks 

Golds 

Kirghiz 

Koriaks 

Ossetes 

Tchuktchi 

Tchuvashes 

Tatars 

Ugrians 

Uzbeks 

Yakuts 

Yukagirs 

Malayan  Peoples 

Polynesians 

Melanesians 

Micronesians 

Negritos 

(c)   For  Africa: 
Akka 
Bantu 
Bejas 
Berber 
Kabyles 
Bushmen 
Hottentots 
Kafirs 
Dinka 
Fellah 
Masai 
Hausa  (under  Hausa  States) 


Niam  Niam 

Somali 

Yolof 

Yoruba 

Zulus   (under  Zululand) 

(d)  For  Australasia: 

Australians    (under  Australia) 

Maoris 

Tasmanians   (under  Tasmania) 

{e)   For  Europe: 
Europe,  Peoples  of 
Basque  Race 
Gypsies 
Lapps  (under  Lapland) 

15.  A  partial  list  of  well-known 
anthropologists  woiiid  include  the  fol- 
lowing names : 

Andre,  R. 

Bandelier,  A.  F.  A. 

Bastian,  A. 

Beauchamp,  W.  M. 

Berendt,  K.  H. 

Boas,  F. 

Brinton,  D.   G. 

Broca,  P. 

Catlin,  G. 

Gushing,  F.   H. 

Faidherbe,  L.   L.   C. 

Flower,  W.  H. 

Fritsch,  G.  T. 

Furncss,  W.  H. 

Gatschet,   A.    S. 

Hale,  H. 

Hartmann,  R. 

Hodge,  F.  W. 

Holmes,  W.   H. 

Kanitz,  F.  P. 

Lubbuck,  J. 

McGce,  W   J 

McLennan,  J.  F. 

Mallery,  G. 

Mantegazza,   P. 


ANTHROPOLOGY 


67 


Mason,  O.  T. 
Mooney,   J. 
Morgan,  Jacques  de 
Morgan,  L.  H. 
Mortillct,  L.  L. 
Pilling,  J.   C. 
Powell,  J.  W. 
Prichard,  J.  C. 
Putnam,  F.  W. 
Quartrefages,  J.  L.  A. 
Ranke,  J. 


Ratzcl,  F. 
Reinach,  S. 
Ripley,  W.  Z. 
Schoolcraft,  H.  R. 
Sergi,  G. 

Smith,  Buckingham 
Squier,  E.  G. 
Topinard,  P. 
Tylor,  E.  B. 
Ujfalvy,  C.  E. 


Olijapto  5.    S^ltgtcn 


OF  THE  numerous  classifications  of  religion,  none  of  which  is  free 
k  from  many  serious  objections,  we  may  adopt  as  the  most  practical 
'  that  which  divides  creeds  into  monotheistic  and  non-monotheistic; 
and  though  here,  too,  we  are  confronted  by  the  difficulty  that 
certain  faiths  are  neither  one  nor  the  other,  completely,  we  may 
apply  the  former  term  to  the  three  great  religions  of  Judaism,  Christianity,  and 
Jlohammedanism,  and  classify  under  the  second  heading  all  beliefs  whatsoever, 
from  primitive  animism  through  the  various  national  mythologies  to  the  great 
moral  and  philosophic  systems  of  the  East.  The  starting  point  should  be  the 
comprehensive  article  on  Religion,  Comparative.  The  subject  may  be  then 
pursued  through  such  general  articles  as  Belief,  Worship,  Rite,  Prayer,  Sac- 
KiFiCE,  Priest,  etc.  Additional  titles,  in  great  number,  will  naturally  suggest 
themselves  to  the  reader.  The  field,  indeed,  is  extensive  and  touches  intimately 
on  the  domains  of  Anthropology,  Psychology,  Philosophy,  and  History.  This 
will  be  found  especially  true  in  the  religions  of  the  East,  where  philosophy  and 
mythology  or  religion  are  practically  one. 


1.  The  beginnings  of  religion,  as 
studied  in  the  beliefs  of  primitive  races, 
will  be  found  treated  in  the  chapter  on 
Anthropology,  where  appear  such 
titles  as 

Man,  Science  of 
Nature-Worship 
Fetishism,  etc. 

The  subject  is  carried  on  in  the  spe- 
cial articles  dealing  with  individual 
tribes  and  nations,  of  which  a  list 
appears  in  the  same  chapter. 

2.  The  religions  and  mythologies  of 
the  Mesopotamian  nations,  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Rome  are  discussed  in  the 
chapter  on  History,  in  the  various  sec- 
tions devoted  to  those  countries.  The 
intimate  connection  of  the  religions  and 
the  political  life  in  the  ancient  world 
has  made  this  division  seem  desirable. 

3.  The  mythology  of  the  Scandi- 
navian and  Teutonic  races  differs  from 


that  of  Greece  in  its  pervading  atmos- 
phere of  gloom  and  the  foreboding 
of  fate.  The  northern  divinities  lack 
the  joyous  grace  and  humanity  of  the 
Olympian  pantheon,  and  the  powers  of 
darkness,  cold,  and  death  play  a  far 
more  consj^icuous  part.     See : 

]\Iythology 
Polytheism 

Scandinavian    and   Teutonic    Myth- 
ology 
Edda 
Aesir 
Asgard 
Rifriist 
Yggdrasil 
Miinir 
Norns 
Odin 
Tyr 
Thor 
Bragi 


G8 


RELIGION 


69 


Balder 

Loki 

Freyja  and  Frigga 

RagnariJk 

Fenrir 

Walhalla 

Hel 

Niflheim 

4.  We  leave  pure  polytheism  in 
passing  to  the  great  religions  of  India. 
Myth-worship,  there,  evolves  with  time 
into  complex  systems  of  mythology 
modified  by  abstruse  philosophical 
speculation. 

(a)   Brahmanism. 

The  religious  system  known  as 
Brahmanism  may  go  back  to  the  sec- 
ond millcnium  before  the  Christian  era, 
and  comprises  the  mass  of  beliefs  and 
institutions  originated  or  elaborated 
from  a  primitive  nature-worship,  by 
the  Brahmans,  who,  from  a  very  early 
period,  have  constituted  the  dominant 
class  among  the  Hindus.  It  is  essen- 
tially a  legislative  system,  with  a  vast 
and  minutely  outlined  ceremonial. 
See: 

Brahmanism 

Aryan 

Veda 

Brahmana 

Upanishad 

Manu 

Brahma 

Varuna 

Agni 

Indra 

Ushas 

Maruts 

Pitris 

Sankhya 

Nyaya 

Vedanta 


Mahabharata 

Ramayana 

Vishnu 

Siva 

Krishna 

Purfina 

Tantra 

Vaishnavas 

Saivas 

Sjiktas 

Parvati 

Kali 

Lakshml 

Hanumfin 

Gancsa 

Sraddha 

Caste 

Henotheism 

See  also: 

Sikhs 

(b)    Buddhism. 

Buddhism  antedates  Christianity  in 
its  origin,  and  its  adherents  are  second 
in  number  only  to  those  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith.  Taking  its  rise  in  Hindu- 
stan, it  has  spread  over  China,  Indo- 
China,  Japan,  Tibet,  and  the  plains 
of  Northern  and  Central  Asia.  In 
that  continent,  its  mission  as  a  bearer 
of  civilization  and  morality  has  been 
not  unlike  the  role  played  by  Chris- 
tianity in  Europe  and  America.     See: 

Buddhism 

Gautama  Buddlia 

Pitaka 

Asoka 

Metempsychosis 

Karma 

Nirvana 

Sravaka 

Shin-Shu 

Bonze 


70 


RELIGION 


For  a  Variant  of  Buddhism,  see 

Lamaism 
And,  for  an  Allied  Creed,  see 

Jainism 
See  also  Brahmanism,  above. 

5.    ZOROASTRIANISM. 

In  tlie  great  religion  of  Iran,  we 
may  find  the  earliest  traces  of  primi- 
tive Aryan  belief.  Zoroastrianism  is 
important  for  the  influence  it  exer- 
cised on  Judaism  and  Christianity,  to 
wliicli  it  contributed  the  great  dual- 
istic  principle  of  tlie  conflict  between 
good  and  evil.     See: 

Zoroastrianism 

Zoroaster 

Avesta 

Gat  has 

Pahlavi    Language    and    Literature 

Magi 

Parsis 


Gliebers 

Ormazd 

Ahriman 

Mithras 

Asmodeus 

Saoshyant 

6.  The  prevailing  religion  in  China 
and  Japan  is  Buddhism.  The  native 
religious  systems  of  China  are  in 
reality  moral  philosophies.  In  Japan, 
however,  we  find  a  peculiarly  national 
religion,  influenced  to  some  extent  by 
Chinese  and  Buddliistic  elements.     See: 


(a) 

Confucius 

Mencius 

Chu-Hi 

(b) 

Taoism 

Lao-tse 

(c) 

Shint5 

Kobo  Daishi 

Fox-deity 

B.    Mmwtl^nBtu    Srltgtnna 


I.  Judaism. 


The  history  of  the  Jewish  people, 
who  claimed  to  be  the  nation  specially 
favored  of  the  One  God,  and  the  sole 
depository  of  His  revelation,  will  be 
largely  found  in  the  historical  chapter 
of  this  book ;  but  licre  a  few  further 
indications  may  be  given  of  some 
of  their  peculiar  institutions.  Their 
worship,  in  its  earlier  form,  is  described 
under  Tabernacle,  then  under  Tem- 
ple, and  in  a  special  section  of 
the  article  Sacrifice,  and  a  still  later 
development  is  treated  under  Syna- 
gogue. 

Special  observances  at  particular 
seasons  are  treated  under: 

Passover 


Purim 

Atonement,  Day  of 

Pentecost 

Dedication  Feast 

Weeks,  Feast  of 

Tabernacles,  Feast  of 

Sabbath 

Jubilee,  Year  of 

On  their  sacred  writings,  besides  the 
articles  on  each  book  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, see: 

Talmud 

T/irgum 

Midrash 

Gemara 

Mishna 

The  functionaries  of  their  religion 
and  justice  come  under: 


RELIGION 


71 


Priest 

High  Priest 

Levitc 

Scribe 

Rabbi 

Sanhedrin 

Other  characteristic  customs  and 
usages : 

Circumcision 

Tithes 

Unction 

Proselyte 

Urim  and  Thummim 

Phylactery 

The  sects  and  parties  which  devel- 
oped in  course  of  time  among  the  race 
are  detailed  under  Jewish  Sects,  and 
specially  in  the  following  articles : 

Pharisees 

Sadducees 

Essenes 

Chasidim 

Frank,  Jacob 

II.  Chkistianity. 

1.  Foundations.  The  history  of 
Christianity  is  so  diversified,  and  so 
intimately  bound  up  with  the  develop- 
ment of  European  civilization,  that  a 
large  amount  of  space  is  necessarily 
accorded  to  it.  The  most  convenient 
division  will  begin  with  the  founda- 
tions, including  under  that  head  the 
articles  centring  around  its  Founder 
and  the  history  and  worthies  of  the 
first  few  centuries  of  the  Christian  era, 
before  Europe  was  submerged  in  the 
chaos  which  resulted  from  the  bar- 
barian invasions.     See : 

Christianity 

Creeds  and  Confessions 

Fundamentals  of  Christian  Doctrine 

Development  of  Doctrine 


God 

Jesus  Christ 

Incarnation 

Hypostatic  Union 

Atonement 

Intercession,  Doctrine  of 

Resurrection 

Miracles 

Holy  Ghost 

Filioque 

Trinity,  Doctrine  of  the 

Nicene  Creed 

Prayer 

Providence 

Predestination 

Foreknowledge  and  Foreordination 

Sin 

Original  Sin 

Besides  the  article  under  the  title 
EscHATOLOGY,  scvcral  others  which 
follow  deal  with  the  problems  which 
have  so  exercised  the  mind  of  man  as 
to  his  ultimate  destination  after  the 
short  period  of  life  in  this  world.    See : 

Immortality 

Judgment,  Final 

Millennium 

Second  Advent  of  Christ 

Apocalyptic  Literature 

Antichrist 

Annihilationism 

Heaven 

Beatific  Vision 

Hell 

Probation  after  Death 

Purgatory 

Limbus 

The  following  articles  deal  with  the 
organizations  by  whose  means  the  re- 
ligion of  Christ  was  spread  throughout 
the  world,  and  with  early  records  of 
its  faith  and  practice: 

Church 


72 


RELIGION 


Council 

Synod 

Missions,  Christian 

Apostle 

Doctors  of  the  Church 

Fathers  of  the  Church 

Persecutions  of  the  Christians 

Lapsed 

Catechumens 

Disciplina  Arcani 

Agapffi 

Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles 

Apostolic  Constitutions 

Apostolic  Fathers 

Jerusalem,  Councils  of 

NiciEa,  Councils  of 

Constantinople,  Councils  of 

Ephesus,  Councils  of 

Council  of  Chalcedon   (under  Chal- 

cedon) 
For  the  great  figures  of  the  period 
of  foundation  and  dissemination,  see: 
Mary 
Joseph 

John  the  Baptist 
Peter 
Paul 
John 

James  * 

Philip 

Bartholomew 
Thomas 
Andrew 
Jude 
Barnabas 
Mattiiias 
Mark 
Luke 

Mary  Magdalene 
Timothy 
Titus 
Stephen 
Justin  Martyr 
Ignatius 


Irenseus 

Polycarp 

Agnes 

Agatha 

Alban 

Apollos 

Athanasius 

Arius 

Augustine 

Barbara 

Basil 

Boniface 

Cassianus,  Johannes 

Cecilia 

Chrysostom 

Cyprianus 

Cyril  of  Alexandria 

Cyril  of  Jerusalem 

Denis 

Dionysius 

Ephraem 

Epiphanius 

Eusebius 

Fclicitas 

Fortunatus,  Venantius 

Gregory  of  Nazianzus 

Gregory  of  Nyssa 

Gregory  Thaumaturgus 

Gregory  of  Tours 

Hilary 

Hippolytus 

Hosius 

Isidore  of  Seville 

Jerome 

Lawrence 

Martin  of  Tours 

Patrick 

Prudentius,  Aurelius  Clemens 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia 

2.  Early  Sects  and  Heresies, 
No  sooner  had  the  Christian  Church 
been  fully  organized  and  entered  upon 
its  mission  of  converting,  tiinn  tlic 
infinite  diversity  of  human  minds  im- 


RELIGION 


73 


pcllcd  different  men  to  emphasize  dis- 
proportionately some  one  aspect  of  the 
faitli  which  all  at  first  hold  in  common. 
This  was  especially  the  case  during  the 
first  three  centuries,  while  Christianity 
had  its  chief  stronghold  in  the  East, 
the  speculative  and  dialectical  minds  of 
whose  people  were  naturally  inclined  to 
minute  questions  of  abstract  theology. 
The  heresies  which  took  their  rise  in 
the  West  were  of  a  more  practical 
kind,  dealing,  like  Montanism,  with  the 
severity  of  discipline,  or,  like  Pelagian- 
ism,  with  the  freedom  of  the  human 
will.  Those  who  wish  to  trace  the 
abstruse  questions  which  threatened  to 
divide  the  Church  even  before  it  had 
emerged  from  the  shadow  of  persecu- 
tion, may  consult  especially  the  follow- 
ing articles : 

Adiaphorists 

Adoptian  Controversy 

Arius 

Aetius 

AgnoctiE 

Alogians 

ApolHnaris 

Celsus 

Cerdonians 

Cerinthus 

Docets 

Donatists 

Dositheans 

Ebionites 

Elkcsaites 

Eutyches 

Gnosticism 

Hesychasts 

Iconoclasm 

Macedonians 

Manichffism 

Monarchians 

Monophysites 

Monothelitism 


Montanus 

Nestorians 

Nicolaitans 

Novatian 

Origen 

Patripassianism 

Paulicians 

Pelagianism 

Sabcllius 

Scmi-pelagianism 

Valentinians 

Vigilius 

3.  Traditional  Christianity. 
The  latter  history  of  Christianity  may 
be  most  conveniently  divided  into  two 
main  heads — according  as  the  various 
Christian  bodies  have  adhered,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  to  the  older 
usages  or  beliefs,  or  have  broken  away 
from  them,  and  evolved  new  ones  of 
their  own.  Of  these  two  divisions,  the 
former  is  inevitably  much  the  larger, 
covering  a  much  greater  extent  of  time 
and  a  wider  range  of  subjects.  The 
naturally  unchanging  East  has  been 
less  affected  by  the  currents  of  thought, 
and  the  many  practical  problems,  which 
have  introduced  many  changes  or  de- 
velopments in  the  western  world.  The 
articles  Papacy,  which  traces  the  his- 
tory of  the  central  see  of  Christendom, 
down  to  the  Council  of  Trent;  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  which  includes  the 
subsequent  history  of  the  churches  in 
communion  witli  it ;  and  Gallican 
Church,  give  a  large  part  of  the  gen- 
eral institutional  development ;  and  the 
biographies  of  nearly  all  the  Popes, 
contain  valuable  indications  of  the 
policy  which  has  at  different  periods 
guided  the  larger  part  of  Christendom. 
The  article.  Church  History,  con- 
tains   an    account    of    the    principal 


74 


RELIGION 


writers  who  have  narrated  tliis  develop- 
ment ;  and  the  following  articles  con- 
tain detailed  information  on  all  the 
more  important  points. 

(a)   For  Church  Organization,  see : 

Patriarch 

Metropolitan 

Archbishop 

Bishop 

Titular  Bishops 

Suffragan 

Apostolic   Succession 

Orders,  Holy 

Cardinal 

Conclave 

Legate 

Priest 

Rector 

Vicar 

Vicar-General 

Archdeacon 

Cathedral 

Dean 

Chapter 

Rural  Dean 

Deacon 

Subdeacon 

Acolytes 

Reader 

Exorcist 

Ostiarius 

Tonsure 

Council 

Encyclical  Letters 

Bull" 

In  Coena  Domini 

Unigenitus 

Brief,  Papal 

Church   Discipline 

Excommunication 

Dispensation 

Indulgence 

Inquisition 


Congregation 

Propaganda 

Index 

Commandments  of  the  Church 

Celibacy 

(b)  Christianity  had  scarcely  been 
organized  before  a  definite  form  of 
worship  was  adopted,  and  this  became 
more  and  more  fixed  and  uniform  in 
its  details  as  time  went  on.  A  great 
many  matters  of  interest  are  contained 
in  the  history  of  these  liturgical  forms, 
which  will  be  found  fully  given  under 
numerous  titles.     See: 

Worship 

Liturgy 

Mozarabic  Liturgy 

Mass 

Requiem 

Introit 

Kyrie  Eleison 

Gloria  in   Excelsis 

Collect 

Epistle 

Gradual 

Sequence 

Gospel 

Offertory 

Secret 

Missal 

Pontifical 

Ritual 

Processional 

Canonical  Hours 

Breviary 

Lesson 

Te  Deum 

Magnificat 

Nunc    Dimittis 

Miserere       * 

Dc  Profundis 

Ave  Maria 

Angelus  Domini 


RELIGION 


75 


Hymnology 
Dies  IriE 

Pange  Lingua 

Tantuin  Ergo 

Veni  Creator  Spiritus 

Litany 

Benediction 

Rosary  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary 

Tenebrae 

(c)  Under  Costume,  Ecci-esiasti- 
CAL,  a  full  account  will  be  found  of  the 
historical  development  of  ecclesiastical 
vestments  and  their  use  at  the  present 
day  in  various  parts  of  Christendom. 
A  number  of  other  articles  also  give 
details  as  to  specific  vestments  and  arti- 
cles used  in  divine  worship.     See: 

Tiara 

Pallium 

Mitre 

Crosier 

Stole 

Maniple 

Surplice 

Flabellum 

Altar 

Tabernacle 

Incense 

Censer 

Cross 

Chalice 

Corporal 

Agnus  Dei 

{d)  The  Christian  religion,  at  least 
in  its  ancient  and  traditional  form,  is 
essentially  a  sacramental  one.  In 
other  words,  it  provides  for  the  two- 
fold nature  of  man — body  and  soul — 
by  using  outward  and  visible  signs 
to  convey  inward  and  spiritual  grace. 
A  large  number  of  important  subjects, 
accordingly,  fall  under  the  heading 
Sacrament.     See : 


Sacrament 

Baptism 

Clinic  Baptism 

Heretic   Baptism 

Sponsors 

Confirmation       « 

Lord's  Supper 

Transubstantiation 

Viaticum 

Penance 

Confession 

Absolution 

Orders,  Holy 

Marriage 

Extreme  Unction 

Sacramentals 

Holy  Water 

Scapular 

Jubilee 

Pilgrim 

Stations 

Image-Worship 

Foot-Washing 

(e)  Very  early  in  the  history  of 
the  Christian  Church,  special  observ- 
ances began  to  be  connected  with  cer- 
tain days — weekly,  and  annual  com- 
memorations of  events  in  the  life  of 
its  Founder,  and  anniversaries  of  the 
chief  worthies  who  adorned  its  history. 
These  are  treated  under: 

Sunday 

Friday 

Festivals 

Fast 

Christmas 

Epiphany 

Candlemas 

Annunciation 

Ash-Wednesday 

Lent 

Holy   Week 

Maundy  Thursday 


76 


RELIGION 


Good  Friday 

Easter 

Ascension  Day 

Pentecost 

Trinity  Sunday 

Corpus  Christi    ■* 

Assumption  of  the  Virgin  Mary 

All-Soul's  Day 

Ember-Days 

Angel 

Michael 

Gabriel 

Saint 

Martyr 

Canonization 

Beatification 

Advocatus  DiaboH 

Acta  Sanctorum 

(f )  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  enu- 
merate the  separate  books  of  the  Bible, 
on  which  every  organization  of  Chris- 
tians professes  to  base  its  creed.  Under 
each  of  their  titles,  the  history  and 
purport  of  every  book  may  be  studied, 
as  well  as  the  most  approved  conclu- 
sions of  the  most  recent  scientific  criti- 
cism. Questions  relating  to  the  Bible 
as  a  whole  are  discussed  at  great  length 
in  the  main  article  Bible;  and  refer- 
ence may  be  made  to  the  following  sub- 
sidiary titles: 

Inspiration 
Revelation 
Canon 

Biblical  Criticism 
Textual  Criticism 
Tiibingen  School 
Concordance 
Apocrypha 
Bible  Society 

Bible,  Restrictions  upon  the  Read- 
ing of 
Bible,  Curious  Editions  of 


4.  The  IMonastic  Life.  As  the 
civilized  world,  under  the  later  Roman 
empire,  grew  more  and  more  corrupt, 
the  feeling  gained  ground  that  the 
surest  way  to  escape  from  the  wrath 
to  come  was  to  flee  into  the  desert,  and 
by  prayer  and  mortification  to  avert 
the  divine  displeasure.  The  monastic 
life,  therefore,  considered  as  the  most 
perfect  carrying  out  of  the  counsels 
of  Christ,  took  firm  root  in  the  Church. 
General  details  of  its  spirit  and  or- 
ganization will  be  found  under : 

Monasticism 

Asceticism 

Vow 

Monastery 

Laura 

Hermit 

Recluse 

Pillar  Saint 

Abbey 

Abbot 

Canon 

Brothers,  Lay 

Brotherhoods,  Religious 

Tertiary 

]Monastic  Art 

The  earlier  monastic  ideal  was  that 
of  absolute  separation  from  the  world, 
considered  as  an  inherently  wicked 
place;  and  all  the  older  orders, 
though  frequently  of  the  greatest 
service  to  society  and  civilization 
by  their  preservation  of  learning, 
and  b}'  their  diligent  labors  in 
agriculture  and  the  like,  approach 
more  or  less  tlie  type  known  as  clois- 
tered orders.  Of  these  the  principal 
ones  follow  in  chronological  seciuence, 
with  their  founders,  where  these  have 
separate  articles: 

Antony 


RELIGION 


77 


Paul 

Basilian  Monks 

Augustinians 

Benedictines 

Benedict 

Cluniacs 

Camaldolites 

Carthusians 

Bruno 

Chartreuse,  La  Grande 

Charterhouse 

Cistercians 

Bernard 

Prcmonstratensians 

Gilbertines 

Beguines 

Carmelites 

Servites 

Celestines 

Brigittines 

Bridget 

Ursulines 

Angela  Merici 

Trappists 

Ranee,  Armand  de 

As  modem  society  gradually  be- 
caine  organized  on  more  stable  foun- 
dations, and  men  whose  temperaments 
and  habits  were  peaceful  could  be  safe 
under  its  protection,  another  type 
came  forward,  whose  fundamental 
idea  was  not  retirement  from  the 
world,  but  an  effort  to  sanctify  it,  by 
mingling  more  or  less  with  it.  Under 
the  head  of  what  may  be  called  mis- 
sionary communities,  the  following 
are  to  be  noted: 

Sisterhoods 

Trinitarians 

Franciscans 

Francis  of  Assisi 

Clares,  Poor 

Clare 

Dominicans 


Dominic 

Minimitcs 

Francis  of  Paola 

Barnabites 

Theatines 

Capuchins 

Jesuits 

Ignatius  of  Loyola 

Oratory,  Congregation  of  the 

Philip  Neri 

Oblates 

Borromeo,  Carlo 

Piarists 

Visitation,  Sisters  of  the 

Francis  de  Sales 

Chantal,  Jeanne  Franfoise 

Lazarists 

Vincent  de  Paul 

Sulpicians 

Olier,  Jean  Jacques 

Brothers  and  Sisters  of  Charity 

Brothers    of   the    Christian    Schools 

La  Salle,  Jean  Baptiste  de 

Passionists 

Paul  of  the  Cross 

Redemptorists 

Liguori,  Alfonse  IMaria  di 

Sacred  Heart,  Ladies  of  the 

Mercy,  Fathers  of 

Paulists 

5.  Medi.eval  Period.  The  relig- 
ious aspect  of  the  Middle  Ages  will  be 
found  represented  in  nearly  every  arti- 
cle in  the  foregoing  section ;  but  cer- 
tain others  may  be  added  which  give 
an  account  of  significant  developments 
taking  place  within  this  period.  Thus 
we  have  the  formal  organization  of  a 
whole  logical  system  of  dogmatic  the- 
ology and  philosophy  (see  Scholasti- 
cism), and  of  a  parallel  system  of 
ethics  or  moral  theology  (see  Casu- 
istry). The  story  of  the  Crusades 
is  of  great  importance,  supplemented 


78 


RELIGION 


under  Jerusalem  by  the  history  of  the 
kingdom  and  patriarchate  there  estab- 
lished. The  crucial  controversies  be- 
tween Church  and  State  which  per- 
sisted througliout  the  Middle  Ages 
are  treated  under  Investiture  and 
Regalia  as  well  as  under  Papacy. 
(See  also  in  the  chapter  on  history 
the  section  dealing  with  the  MediiEval 
Ages.)  Under  Schism,  Western,  we 
may  follow  the  division  within  the 
Church  caused  by  the  pretensions  of 
rival  popes.  The  efforts  made  to  se- 
cure unity  of  faith  and  discipline 
appear  under: 

Lateran  Councils 

Basel,  Council  of 

Ferrara-Florence,  Council  of 

Pisa,  Council  of 

Lyons,  Councils  of 

Inquisition 

Torquemada 

The  story  of  those  who  in  this  period 
broke  away  from  that  unity  is  told 
under : 

Cathari 

FraticcUians 

Albigenses 

Waldenses 

Brothers  and  Sisters  of  the  Free 
Spirit 

Apostolic  Brethren 

Lollard 

Abelard 

Bcrcngarius  of  Tours 

Gottschalk 

Wiclif 

Other    topics    of    special     mediicval 
interest  are : 
Joan,  Pope 
Feast  of  Fools 
Biblia  Pauperum 
Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals 


Fulda,  ]\Ionastery  of 
Saint  Gall 
Monte  Cassino 

The  great  names  in  the  theolog}', 
philosophy,  and  mysticism  of  the 
Medianal  Ages  include: 

Adalbert 

Ailly,  Pierre  d' 

Albert,  Count  of  Bollstadt 

Alexander  of  Hales 

Ansclm 

Aquinas,  Thomas 

Becket,   Thomas  a 

Bede 

Bonaventura 

Catharine  of  Siena  (under  Catha- 
rine) 

Clemanges,  Nicolas  de 

Columba 

Damiani,  Pietro 

Duns  Scotus 

Dunstan 

Eadmer 

Erigena,  Johannes  Scotus 

Joachim  of  Floris 

Kempis,  Thomas  a 

Lan franc 

Lully,  Raymond 

Malachy 

Occam,  William  of 

Peter  Lombard 

Peter  the  Hermit 

Rabanus  Maurus 

Savonarola,  Girolamo 

Tauler,  Johann 

Teresa,  St. 

Wadding,  Luke 

William  of  Saint-Amour 

William  of  Wykcham 

6.  The  Reformation  Period.  A 
special  section  may  well  bo  devoted  to 
the  period  of  lun'cst  and  disruption 
commonly  known  as  the  Reformation. 


RELIGION 


79 


All  over  Europe  there  was  a  movement, 
more  or  less  general  and  permanent 
according  to  local  circumstances,  to- 
wards throwing  off  the  authority  of  the 
Pope,  simplifying  faith  and  worship, 
and  returning  to  what  were  assumed  to 
be  primitive  beliefs  and  usages.     See: 

Reformation 

Counter-Reformation 

Utraquists 

Communion  in  Both  Kinds 

Brethren,  Bohemian 

Augsburg  Confession 

Interim 

Concord,  Book  of 

Corpus  Doctrina; 

Magdeburg  Centuries 

Epistolas  Obscurorum  Virorum 

Antinomianism 

Bartholomew's,  Massacre  of  Saint 

Dort,  Synod  of 

Reformed  Churches 

Trent,  Council  of 

For  the  Men  of  this  Period,  see : 

Albert  (of  Magdeburg) 
Baronius,  Caesar 
Bellarmine 
Beza,  Theodore 
Bonner,  Edmund 
Bucer,  Martin 
Bugenhagen,  .Tohann 
Cajetan,  Thomas 
Campion,  Edmund 
Calvin,  John 
Canisius,  Pctrus 
Cano,  Melchior 
Colet,  John 

Eck,  Johann  ]\Iaier  von 
Erasmus,  Dcsiderius 
Erastus,  Thomas 
Faber,  Jacques 
Fisher,  John 
Hamilton,  Patrick 


Hooper,  John 
Hutten,  Ulrich  von 
Luther,  Martin 
Melanchthon,  Philip 
More,  Thomas 
Q^colampadius,  Johannes 
Philip  the  Magnanimous 
Reuchlin,  Johann 
Sarpi,  Paolo 
Tetzel,  Johann 
Vcrmigli,  Pietro  Martire 
Wishart,  George 
Zwingli,  Ulrich 

7.  Before  proceeding  to  a  review  of 
the  Reformed  Churches  of  modern 
times,  the  history  of  Eastern  Chris- 
tianity, separate  from  that  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  since  1054, 
may  be  studied  under  the  following 
titles : 

Greek  Church 

Filioque 

Quinisext 

Photius 

Lucaris 

Nikon 

Raskolniki 

Dukhobortsy 

Molokani 

Skoptsy 

Stundists 

8.  Modern  Reformed  Churches. 

(a)  Anglican.  The  article  under 
the  title,  Anglican  Communion,  ex-, 
plains  the  extent  and  relations  of  the 
various  churches  in  communion  with 
the  Church  of  England,  which  repre- 
sent characteristically  the  more  con- 
servative elements  in  the  religion  of 
the  English-speaking  races.  Though 
as  organizations  they  owe  their  origin 
to  the  great  upheaval  of  the  sixteenth 
centurv,  their  doctrine  and  usages  are 


80 


RELIGION 


largely  in  harmony  with  those  which 
prevailed  before  the  Reformation,  and 
wiU  be  found  treated  in  many  in- 
stances under  titles  wliich  include  the 
ancient  and  modern  Roman  Catholic 
belief  or  practice.  The  following  ar- 
ticles, however,  may  be  consulted  for 
specifically  Anglican  points: 

England,  Church  of 

Ireland,  Cliurch  of 

Episcopal  Church 

Articles,  The  Thirty-nine 

Prayer-Book 

Homily 

Lambeth  Conference 

Churcli  Congress 

Supremacy,  Royal 

Ecclesiastical  Commissioners. 

Vestry 

Warden,  Church 

Parish 

Parish  Clerk 

Lay  Reader 

Advertisements  of  Elizabeth 

Martin  Marprelate   Controversy 

Savoy  Conference 

Nonjurors 

Nonconformists 

Dissenters 

Act  of  Uniformity 

Oxford  Movement 

Gorhani  Controversy 

Ecclesiastical  Titles  Assumption 

Act 
Ritualism 

Queen  Anne's  Rounty 
Christian     Knowledge,     Society 

for  Promoting 
Church  Temperance  Society 
Brotherhood  of  Saint  Andrew 
Daughters  of  the  King 
Bampton  Lectures 
Ilulsean  Lectures 


Among  the  prominent  names  in  the 
history  of  the  Church  of  England  in 
Great  Britain  appear: 

Cranmer,  Thomas 
Ridley,  Nicholas 
Latimer,  Hugh 
Hooker,  Richard 
Laud,  William 
Andrewes,  Lancelot 
Hall,  Joseph 
Ken,  Thomas 
Leighton,  Robert 
Taylor,  Jeremy 
Sanderson,  R. 
Whitgift,  J. 
Tillotson,  John 
Wake,  William 
Atterbury,  Francis 
Warburton,  William 
Simeon,  Charles 
Romaine,  W. 
Pusey,  Edward  Bouverie 
Keble,  John 
Rose,  Hugh  James 
Forbes,  Alexander  P. 
Liddon,  Henry  Parry 
Maurice,  Frederick  Denison 
Arnold,  Thomas 
Robertson,  Frederick  W. 
Milman,  Henry  Hart 
Jowett,  Benjamin 
Stanley,  Arthur  Pcnrhyn 
Wilbcrforco,  Samuel 
Trench,  Richard  Chenevix 
Vaughan,  Charles  J. 
Wordsworth,  Charles 
Wordsworth,  Christopher 
Benson,  Edward  While 
Lightfoot,  Josej)h  Barber 
Westcott,  Brooke  Foss 
Thorold,  Anthony  Wilson 
Stubbs,  William 
Bright,  William 


RELIGION 


81 


Tait,   Archibald   Campbell 
Temple,  Frederick 

Of  the  Church  in  America  the  lead- 
ing representatives  have  been : 

Seabury,  Samuel 
White,  William 
Hobart,  John  Henry 
Provoost,  Samuel 
Hopkins,  John  Henry 
Muhlenberg,   William   Augustus 
Tyng,  Stephen  H. 
Whittingham,    William    Rollin- 

son 
Williams,  John 
Whipple,  Henry  B. 
Potter,  Horatio 
Potter,  Alonzo 
Potter,   Henry   Codman 
Brooks,  Phillips 
Newton,  Richard  Hebcr 
Dix,  Morgan 
(b)   Presbyterian: 
Presbyterianism 
Elder 
Moderator 
Synod 

Assembly  of  Divines 
Perth,  Five  Articles  of 
Cameronians 
Covenants,  The 
Infralapsarian 
Alexander,  Archibald 
Alexander,  J.  A. 
Babcock,  M.  D. 
Baird,  C.  W. 
Briggs,  C.  A. 
Burrell,  D.  J. 
Calamy,  Edmund 
Cameron,  J. 
Chalmers,  Thomas 
Cuyler,  T.  L. 
Geddes,  J. 
Green,  W.  H. 


Hall,  John 
Hodge,  C. 
Knox,  John 
Melville,  Andrew 
Parkhurst,  C.  H. 
Patton,  F.  L. 
Paxton,  J.  R. 
Prentiss,  G.  L. 
Prime,  S.  I. 
Robinson,  C.  S. 
Shields,  C.  W. 
Talmage,  T.  DeWitt 
Tennent,  Gilbert 
Watson,  John 
Witherspoon,  J. 

(c)   Methodist: 

Methodism 

Itinerancy 

Experience  Meeting 

Camp-Meeting 

Epworth  League 

Wesley,  John 

Wesley,  Charles 

Whitefield,  George 

Coke,  Thomas 

Huntingdon,    Selima   Hastings 

Asbury,  Francis 

Clarke,  Adam 

Emory,  John 

Fowler,  C.  H. 

Haven,  E.  O. 

Haven,  Gilbert 

Hurlbut,  J.  L. 

Hurst,  John  F. 

Moore,  D.  H. 

Moore,  Henry 

Newman,  J.  P. 

Ouseley,  G. 

Punshon,  W.  M. 

Sankey,  Ira  D. 

Strong,  James 

Taylor,  W. 

Tefft,  B.  F. 


82 


RELIGION 


Townley,  James 
Townsend,  L.  T. 
Vincent,  J.  H. 
Walden,  J.  M. 
Warren,  H.  W. 
Watson,  R. 
Wise,  Daniel 

((7)     CONGREGATIONALIST : 

Congregationalism 
Puritans 
'*       Separatists 

Browne,  Robert 
Robinson,  John 
Cotton,  John 
Mather,  Richard 
Hooker,  Thomas 
Edwards,  Jonathan 
Hopkins,  Samuel 
Bellamy,  Joseph 
Dwight,  Timothy 
Abbott,  Lyman 
Bartlett,  S.  C. 
Bcecher,  Henry  Ward 
Beecher,  Lyman 
Bissel,  E.  C. 
Bushnell,  H. 
Dexter,  H.  M. 
Finney,  C.  G. 
Gladden,  W. 
Park,  E.  A. 
Parker,  Joseph 
Phelps,  Austin 
Storrs,  R.  S. 
Taylor,  N.  W. 

(e)   Baptist: 
Baptists 
Baptism 

Baptism,  Infant 
Anabaptists 
Miinzer,  T. 
John  of  Leyden 
IVIonnonitf's 
River  Brethren 


Burrage,  H.  S. 
Conant,  T.  J. 
Hall,  R. 
Lorimer,  G.  C. 
Peters,  M.  C. 
Ripley,  H.  J. 
Robinson,  E.  G. 
Spurgeon,  C.  H. 
Vedder,  H.  C. 
Wayland,  F. 

(f)    Lutheran  : 

Lutheranism 

Reformation,  The  Protestant 

Lutlier 

Melanchthon 

Augsburg  Confession 

Grecnwald,  Emanuel 

Mulilenberg,  H.  M. 

Mulilenberg,  J.  P.  G. 

Seiss,  J.  A. 

Stuckenberg,  J.  H.  W. 

,(g)   Dutch  Reformed: 

Reformed  Churcli  in  America 

Belgic  Confession 

Heidelberg     Catechism      (under 

Catechism) 
Dort,  Synod  of 
Classis 
Ferris,  I. 
Riddle,  M.  B. 

(7i)   Quaker  or  Friends: 
Friends 
Fox,  George 
Penn,  William 
Hicks,  Elias 
Gurney,  J.  J. 
Wilbur,  John 

(i)   Unitarian: 

Unitarianism 
Arius 
Socinus 
Servetus,  Michael 


RELIGION 


83 


Biddle,  John 
Priestley,  Joseph 
Allen,  J.  H. 
Chadwick,  J.  W. 
Channing,  W.  E. 
Collyer,  Robert 
Freeman,  James 
Frothingham,  O.  B. 
Hill,  Thomas 
Parker,  Theodore 
Savage,  M.  J. 
Ware,  Henry 

(j)   Universalist : 

Universalism 
Relly,  James 
Murray,  John 
Winchester,  Elhanan 
Ballou,  Hosea 
Hanaford,  Phebe  A. 

(k)   Mormon  : 
Mormons 
Smith,  Joseph 
Pratt,  Orson 
Pratt,  P.  P. 
Rigdon,  S. 
Taylor,  John 
Woodruff,  W. 
Young,  Brigham 

(1)   Other  Denominations: 
Adventists 
Miller,  William 
Christian  Catholic  Church 
Christian  Science 
Eddy,  Mary  Baker  Glover 
Evangelical  Alliance 
German  Baptist   Brethren 
German   Evangelical   Protestant 

Church 
German    Evangelical    Synod    of 

North  America 
Institutional  Church 
Moravians 
Brethren,  Bohemian 


Huss,  John 
Comenius,  J.  A. 
Zinzendorf,  Nikolaus 
Reformed   Church  in   the   Unit- 
ed States. 
United  Brethren  in  Christ 
Otterbein,  P.  W. 
Evangelical  Association 

III.  Mohammedanism. 

The  history  of  Islam  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  history  of  the  nations 
which  adopted  it  as  their  creed.  This 
was  due  to  the  injunction  laid  by  Mo- 
hammed on  his  followers  to  spread  his 
teachings  by  the  sword,  a  policy  which 
made  the  extension  of  Mohammedan- 
ism largely  coincident  with  conquest. 
The  political  aspect  of  Moslem  his- 
tory may,  therefore,  bo  best  studied 
under  the  names  of  Mohammedan  na- 
tions, dynasties,  and  rulers,  such  as 
Abbassides,  Ommiads,  Seljuks,  Tur- 
key, Arabia,  etc.  Here  only  are 
given  the  leading  titles  dealing  with 
the  religious  development  and  present 
character  of  the  faith. 

For  the  Rise  of  Islam,  see: 
Mohammed 
Mohammedanism 
Mohammedan  Sects 
Islam 
Mecca 
Medina 
Hejira 
Ayeshah 

For  the  successors  of  Mohammed 
and  early  conquerors  who  spread  the 
gospel  of  Islam  in  Asia,  Africa,  and 
Europe,  see: 

Caliph 

Abu-Bekr 

Omar 


84 


RELIGION 


OHiman 

Ali 

Ommiads 

Khalid 

Musa  ibn  Noseyr 

Amr  ibn  al-Asi 

Tarik 

Idrisites 

Fatimites 

Almoravides 

Almohades 

For  the  tenets  and  practices  of  the 
faith,  in  addition  to  the  titles  already 
quoted,  see: 

Koran 

Sunna 

Hadith 

Kaaba 

Hajj 

Hajji 

Fast 

Ramadan 

Beiram 

Muharram 

Kiblah 

Houri 


Jinn 

Iblis 

Imam 

Mufti 

Muezzin 

Ulema 

Madrasah 

Marabouts 

Mosque 

For  Sects  and  Parties,  see: 
Sunnites 
Shiites 

Hasan  and  Hosein 
Mahdi 
Ansaries 
Druses 

Hakim  ibn  Allah 
Mutazalites 
Wahabis  ^ 

Dervish 
Babism 
Sufiism 
Senussi 

For  Mohammedan  Theologians: 
Hani  f  ah 
Ghazali 


Ollfapter  0-    Siuraton 


THE  study  of  the  science  of  education  is  peculiarly  related  to  the 
study  of  the  growth  and  development  of  the  intellectual,  moral, 
and  spiritual  life  of  the  human  race.  Every  department  of 
knowledge  is  necessarily  in  some  way  connected  with  the  science- 
of  education.  Most  of  the  great  thinkers  of  all  ages  have  con- 
tributed to  the  literature  of  the  science,  and  consequently  many  names  must  be- 
included  in  our  list  of  educators  which  appear,  as  well,  in  some  other  field.  As 
part  of  some  one  philosophical  system  or  another,  education  goes  back  to  early 
times,  but  its  history  as  an  independent  science,  separated  from  philosophy  or 
theology,  is  quite  recent.  Its  problems,  too,  have  grown  immeasurably  more  com- 
plex with  the  progress  of  democratic  ideals  and  the  widening  of  its  sphere  of 
interest.  More  even  than  national  defense,  the  fostering  of  public  education  has. 
come  to  be  the  great  function  of  the  modern  State;  and,  though  differences  of 
opinion  prevail  as  to  how  far  this  obligation  extends  in  practice,  in  all  progressive 
countries  there  is  no  class  of  men  whom  the  government,  in  one  way  or  another, 
does  not  attempt  to  supply  with  the  means  of  education. 

There  are  three  sides  from  which  students  may  appi'oach  the  study  of  the 
science:  the  historical,  the  psychological,  and  the  pedagogical. 

The  History  of  education  is  outlined  in  the  Article  Education,  which  traces 
its  development  from  the  dawn  of  civilization  to  the  present  day.  A  more 
detailed  study  of  the  subject  may  be  systematically  pursued  in  the  following 
lists  of  articles.  The  subject  is  usually  divided  into  four  periods:  Pre-Christian 
(including  the  Oriental  and  the  Classical  types),  Early  Christian,  Mediaeval, 
and  Modern. 

I.  The  Pre-Christian  Period.  they  strove  to  attain  their  ideals,  are 

(a)   The  several  types   of  Oriental  discussed  under  the  following  heads: 

education  are  discussed  in  the  following  hopiiists 

articles :  Socrates 

Plato 

Confucius  Aristotle 

Buddhism  Xenophon 

Caste  Cyropa?dia 

Jews  Sparta 

Talmud  Games 

Rabbi  Plutarch 

Mohanimedanism  Quintilian 

Ulema 

Mufti 


II.  The  Early  Christl\n  Period. 


Madrasah  The  part  played  by  the  early  Chris- 

tian Fathers  in  the  furtherance  of  edu- 
(b)   The  aims  of  Greek  and  Roman      cation  and  the  estabhshment  of  schools 
educators,  and  the  methods  by  which      will  be  found  under : 

85 


86 


EDUCATION 


Catechumens 

Catechetical  Schools 

Chrysostom 

Basil  the  Great 

Clement  of  Alexandria 

Origen 

Theodore  of  Mopsuestia 

For  the  struggle  between  the  pagan 
and  early  Christian  educators,  see : 

Tertullian 

Augustine 

These  bring  the  student  up  to  the 
Mediaeval  period. 

III.  The  Medieval  Period. 

In  the  series  of  articles  dealing  with 
this  period,  the  student  will  find  an 
account  of  the  efforts  made  by 
the  Church  to  promulgate  education 
throughout  Christendom,  and  will  be 
led  up  to  the  modern  movement,  which 
properly  co-extends  with  the  movement 
that  led  up  to  and  through  the  Refor- 
mation.    See : 

Monasticism 

Benedictines 

Arts,  Liberal 

Quadrivium 

Trivium 

Scholasticism 

Charles  the  Great 

Alcuin 

Alfred  the  Great 

Abelard 

Chivalry 

University 

IV.  The  Modern  Period. 
Educational   progress   was   hastened 

and  turned  into  varying  channels  by 
the  revival  of  the  old  learning.  The 
Reformation  initiated  the  separation  of 
education  from  theology,  and,  by 
breaking  up  tlie  unit  of  European  cul- 
ture, gave  rise  to  national  systems  of 


education  and  the  use  of  the  national 
vernaculars  as  the  medium  of  instruc- 
tion. For  the  early  educational  re- 
formers, see : 

Renaissance 

Humanism 

Dante 

Petrarch 

Boccaccio 

Poggio  Bracciolini 

Pico  della  Mirandola 

Poliziano 

Reuchlin 

Erasmus 

Budfpus 

Scaliger,  J.  J. 

Scaliger,  J.  C. 

Casaubon,  I. 

Hardouin,  J. 

Reformation,  The  Protestant 

Luther 

Melanchthon 

Sturm,  Johannes 

Ascham,  Roger 

Rabelais 

Montaigne 

Bacon,  Francis 

Induction 

Ratichius 

Comcnius 

Orbis  Pic'tus 

The  efforts  of  the  Catholic  Church 
to  countinict  the  effects  of  the  Refor- 
mation may  be  studied  in  the  following 
articles : 

Ignatius  of  Loyola 

.Jesuits 

Ratio  Studiorum 

Jansenism 

Port-Royal-dcs-Champs 

For  the  activity  of  the  Church  in 
supj)lying  education  to  the  very  young, 
see: 


EDUCATION 


87 


La  Salic,  Jean  Baptiste  de 
Brothers  of  the  Christian  Schools 
For  writers  who  contributed  to  the 
advancement  of  the  science  of  educa- 
tion, see : 

Milton,  John 
Locke,  John 
Fenelon,  Fran9ois 

The  realistic  movement  in  education 
begins  with  Francke,  and  the  Real- 
schule  had  its  inception  in  his  efforts. 
The  movement  culminates  in  the 
thorough  sweeping  away  of  old  meth- 
ods and  ideas  in  education,  fore- 
shadowed in  Rousseau's  protest  in  his 
Emile.     See : 

Francke,  A.  H. 

Rousseau 

Emile 

Basedow 

Pestalozzi 

Girard,  J.  B. 

Jacotot 

Frobel 

Kindergarten 

Herbart 

Mann,  Horace 

Spencer,  Herbert 

Arnold,  Thomas 

Bell,  Andrew 

Lancaster,  Joseph 

The  systems  of  education  prevalent 
in  Europe  and  America  are  treated 
with  great  minuteness  in  the  article  on 
National  Education,  Systems  of. 
The  subject  is  further  amplified  in  the 
sections  on  Education  of  the  articles 
on  the  various  countries  of  the  world, 
wherein  the  statistical  side  is  empha- 
sized. The  various  phases  of  State 
activity  receive  full  attention  in  the 
following  articles: 

Schools 


Public  Schools 
Common  Schools 
Evening  Schools 
Secondary  Schools 
High  Schools 
Grammar  Schools 
Gymnasia 
Realschule 

Women,  Education  of 
Industrial  Schools 
Vacation  School 
Education,  Colonial 

V.  Pedagogy. 

Pedagogy  is  that  branch  of  the  sci- 
ence of  education  which  deals  with  the 
methods  and  means  of  carrying  out  ed- 
ucational ideas.  The  old  and  the  new 
educational  methods  receive  compre- 
hensive treatment  in  the  article  Peda- 
gogy', which  is  amply  supplemented  by 
the  following  articles : 

Nature-Study 

Child  Psychology 

Object  Teaching 

Kindergarten 

Physical  Training 

Manual  Training 

Normal  School 

Technical  Education 

Professional  Education 

Theological  Education 

IVIedical  Education 

Legal  Education 

Agricultural  Education 

Seminar 

Privat-Docent 

Reading 

Spelling 

Shorthand 

VI.  Educational   Institutions. 
The  growth  of  colleges  and  univer- 
sities in  Europe  and  America  is  treated 
from    the    general    standpoint    in    the 


88 


EDUCATION 


article  on  University.  This  is  sup- 
plemented by  separate  accounts  of  all 
of  the  important  colleges  and  universi- 
ties in  the  world.  The  list  of  Ameri- 
can colleges  and  universities  is  espe- 
cially complete;  to  such  an  extent, 
indeed,  that  mention  may  be  made  of 
only  a  few  of  the  most  prominent. 
See: 

University 

College 

Colleges,  American 

Curriculum 

Elective  Courses 

Degree 

Diploma 

Examination 

Fellowship 

University  Extension 

Harvard  University 

Yale  University 

Princeton  University 

Columbia  University 

Pennsylvania,   University   of 

Brown  University 

Cornell  University 

Johns  Hopkins  University 

Clark  University 

Chicago  University 

Leland  Stanford  Junior  University 

Catholic  University  of  America 

Amherst  College 

Bowdoin  College 

Dartmouth  College 

William  and  ]\Iary  College 

Williams  College 

Girard  College 

Carnegie  Institution 

The  State  universities  have  all  been 
written  up  in  detail. 

For  a  group  of  women's  colleges  in 
the  United  States,  see: 

Barnard  College 

Bryn  Mawr  College 


Mount  Holyoke  College 

Radcliffe  College 

Smith  College 

Vassar  College 

Wellesley  College 

Woman's  College  of  Baltimore 

In  this  connection  see  also: 

Collegiate  Education  of  Women 
Coeducation 

For  English  universities  and  schools, 
see: 

Oxford  University 
Rhodes  Scholarships 
Cambridge,  University  of 
London  University 
Girton  College 
Newnham  College 
Eton  College 
Rugby  School 
Harrow  School 
Shrewsbury  School 
Winchester  College 
Fagging 

For  the  greatest  of  European  univer- 
sities, either  in  present  importance  or 
historically,  see : 

Paris,  University  of 
Berlin,  Universitj'  of 
Vienna,  University  of 
Madrid,  University  of 
Munich,  University  of 
Moscow,  University  of 
Leipzig,  University  of 
Edinburgh,  University  of 
Heidelberg,  University  of 
Bologna,  University  of 
Padua,  University  of 
Salerno,  School  of 
Coinibra,  University  of 
SiilaTnanca,  University  of 
Montpellier,  University  of 
Prague,  University  of 


EDUCATION 


89 


A    partial    list    of    prominent    edu- 
cators of  the  present  day  includes: 
Adams,  C.  K. 
Ames,  J.  B. 
Andrews,  E.  B. 
Angell,  J.  B. 
Barnard,  F.  A.  P. 
Barnard,   Henry 
Bascom,  J. 
Butler,  N.  M. 
Do  Garmo,  C. 
Drisler,  Henry 
Eliot,  C.  W. 
Gilderslceve,  B.  L. 
Oilman,  D.  C. 
Hadley,  A.  T. 
Hadley,  James 
Hall,  G.  S. 
Harkness,  A. 
Harper,  W.  R. 
Harris,  W.  T. 
Hill,  D.  J. 
James,  E.  J. 
Jebb,  R.  C. 
Jordan,  D.  S. 


Jowett,  B. 
Low,  Seth 
Lyon,  Mary 
McCosh,  J. 
Pattison,  Mark 
Patton,  F.  L. 
Quick,  R.  H. 
Schurman,  J.  G. 
Wendell,  Barrett 
Wheeler,  B.  I. 
White,  A.  D. 
Whitney,  W.  D. 

For  classes  of  institutions  that 
have  become  centres  for  the  spread  of 
popular  education,  see : 

(o)   Libraries: 

New  York  Public  Library 
Book 

Alexandrian  Library 
Bodleian  Library 
British  Museum 
Bibliotheque  Nationale 
Library  of  Congress 

(b)   Museum 


7.  f  ijtt0B0pl}g   anil    f  Bgrljnlngg 


THOUGH  great  diversity  exists  as  to  the  meaning  and  scope  of  the 
term  Pliilosopliy,  two  definitions  may  be  given  as  representative. 
The  more  modern  view  regards  philosophy  as  the  sum  of  all  scien- 
tific knowledge,  or  the  systcmatization  of  results  obtained  in  the 
individual  sciences ;  the  historical  and  more  prevalent  view  looks 
upon  philosophy  as  the  search  for  the  ultimate  nature  and  meaning  of  the  uni- 
verse, and  especially  of  human  life.  Embracing  at  one  time  the  totality  of 
scientific  knowledge,  the  field  of  philosophy  has  steadily  grown  narrower  with  the 
erection  of  independent  sciences,  until  at  the  present  day  it  includes  the  studies 
of  metaphysics,  logic,  ethics,  and  a?sthetics.  Psychology  is  the  latest  branch  of 
investigation  to  achieve  its  emancipation  from  philosophy,  whose  methods,  his- 
torically, have  been  quite  different  from  those  that  prevail  in  the  scientific  world 
to-day. 


1.  1.  The  problems  of  philosophy 
are  best  studied,  perhaps,  historically. 
A  brief  summary,  however,  in  neces- 
sarily technical  language,  will  serve  to 
present  the  main  outlines  of  the  sub- 
ject in  the  form  in  which  they  have 
appeared  to  thinkers  of  different  ages. 
Generally,  then,  the  problems  of  phi- 
losophy are  divided  into  three  classes: 
those  which  deal  with  the  ultimate  na- 
ture of  the  universe,  grouped  under  the 
headino;  Metaphysics  ;  those  which 
deal  with  the  forms  of  human  knowl- 
edge and  its  relation  to  reality,  known 
as  epistemology,  or  the  theory  of 
knowledge;  and  those  dealing  with  hu- 
man conduct,  included  in  the  science  of 
ethics.      Sec: 

Philosophy 
Metaphysics 
Knowledge,  Theory  of 

Ethics 

2.  The  inquiry  into  the  nature  of 
reality  takes  on  two  forms :  that  con- 
cerned with  the  ultimate  nature  of 
things,  and  that  dealing  with  the  con- 
nection between  things,  or  the  archi- 
tectural plan  of  the  universe. 

90 


(rt)   For  the  First,  see: 
Ontology 
Dualism 
Monism 
Materialism 
Mechanism 
Idealism 

{h)  For  the  Second,  see: 

Atomism 

Theism 

Transcendentalism 

Pantheism 

Body  and  Mind 

Parallelism 

Mind-stuff  Theory 

Substance 

Form 

Causality 

Time 

Space 

Teleology 

Infinite 

Absolute 
3.  In  connection  with  our  knowledge 
of  the  universe,  two  questions  arise: 
(a)  Taking  the  conglomeration  of 
ideas  we  call  knowledge,  is  there  an 
outside  Reality  corresponding  to  them. 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


91 


or  are  they  lluality  itself;  and  (b)  are 
these  ideas  in  origin  the  result  of  ex- 
perience,  or  are  they   independent   of 
experience?     See: 
{a)   Realism 

Idealism 

Skepticism 
(b)   Empiricism 

Rationalism 

A  priori 

Dialectic 

Category 

Induction 

Deduction 

II.  1.  The  history  of  European 
philosophy  begins  with  the  Greeks,  in 
whom,  however,  strong  Oriental  influ- 
ences are  traceable.  Their  earliest  phi- 
losophy was  a  nature  philosophy,  and 
its  two  great  problems  were  those  of 
Being  and  Becoming.     See: 

Greek  Philosophy 

Thales 

Anaximander 

Anaximenes 

Eleatic  School 

Xenophanes 

Parmenides 

Zeno   (the  Eleatic) 

Gorgias 

Heraclitus 

Pythagoras 

Pythagoreanism 

Neo-Pythagoreanism 

Archytas 

Metempsychosis 

Empedocles 

Anaxagoras 

Atomism 

Leucippus 

Democritus 

2.  In  the  second  period,  the  main  in- 
terest  of   philosophy   becomes   anthro- 


pological or  ethical,  the  tendency 
being  most  fully  apparent  in  the  fig- 
ure of  the  great  teacher  Socrates, 
from  whom  descend  the  great  schools 
of  the  Hellenistic  world,  Platonists, 
Stoics,  Hedonists,  Cynics.  Plato  and 
Aristotle  by  their  genius  moulded 
almost  the  channels  in  which  philo- 
sophic thought  was  to  flow  in  the  fu- 
ture. Greek  philosophy,  toward  its 
end,  exerted  a  powerful  influence  on 
Christianity.     See : 

Sophists 

Protagoras 

Socrates 

Hedonism 

Cyrenaic  School 

Aristippus 

Hegesias 

Epicurus 

Epicureanism 

Lucretius 

Stoics 

Zeno  (the  Stoic) 

Cleanthes 

Chrysippus 

Seneca 

Epictetus 

Aurelius,  Marcus 

Cynics 

Antisthenes 

Diogenes 

Euclid  (of  Mcgara) 

Plato 

Academy 

Arcesilaus 

New-  Academy 

Carneades 

Aristotle 

Peripatetic  Philosophy 

Pyrrho 

^■Enesidemus 

Sextus  Empiricus 

Skepticism 


92 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


Neo-Platonism 

Philo  JucL-eus 

Ammonius 

Plotinus 

Porphyrius 

laniblichus 

Proclus 

Boethius 

Anima  Mundi 

Logos 

Eclecticism 

Cicero 

3.  From  the  Platonic  philosophy,  as 
contained  in  the  writings  of  the  Chris- 
tian Fathers,  media;val  philosophy 
developed  into  the  system  known  as 
Scholasticism,  which  in  its  fullest  de- 
velopment, however,  became  Aristotel- 
ian, through  the  influence  of  the  Ara- 
bian philosophers.  Philosophy  became 
the  handmaiden  of  theology,  and  it 
supported  the  mysteries  of  the  Chris- 
tian faith  by  means  of  a  subtle  dia- 
lectic. The  downfall  of  scholasticism 
began  with  the  fourteenth  century, 
and  was  hastened  by  the  Revival  of 
Learning.     See : 

Scholasticism 

Augustine  (of  Hippo) 

Erigena 

Rabanus  Maurus 

Peter  Lombard 

Realism 

Anselm  of  Canterbury 

Guillaumo  dc  Champcaux 

Nominalism 

Roscelinus 

Durandus 

Occam,  William  of 

Buridan,  Jean 

Ailly,  Pierre  d' 

Concept 

Abclard 

Averroes 


Avicenna 

Albert  of  Bollstadt 

Alexander  of  Hales 

Vincent  of  Beauvais 

Aquinas,  Thomas 

Duns  Scotus 

Sucirez,  Francisco 

Mysticism 

Hugo  of  St.  Victor 

Bernard  of  Clairvaux 

Bonaventura,  St. 

Eckhardt 

Tauler 

Kempis 

Bohme 

Quietism 

Molinos 

Bacon,  Roger 

Lully,  Raymond 

Cusa,  Nikolas 

Renaissance 

The  Revival  of  Learning  brought 
about  a  temporary  revival  of  the  classic 
philosophies,  but  these  served  only  to 
bridge  over  the  chasm  between  the  an- 
cient thought  and  the  modern  philoso- 
phy, whose  beginning  dates  from  the 
establishment  of  Empiricism  by  Bacon 
and  Rationalism  by  Descartes.  The 
subjects  of  Substance  and  Causality 
now  assume  leading  importance.  Car- 
tesian rationalism  ends  in  dogmatism 
on  the  Continent ;  empiricism  ends  in 
skepticism  in  England.      See: 

Bruno,  Giordano 

Campanclla,  T. 

Gassendi 

Rationalism 

Descartes 

IMalcbranche 

Occasionalism 

Spinoza 

Pantlicism 

Leibnitz 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


93 


Prcestablishcd  Harmony 

Monad 

Wolff,  Christian 

Baumgartcn,  A.  G. 

Eberhard,  J.  A. 

Mendelssohn,  Moses 

Vico,  G.  B.    ' 

Empiricism 

Hobbcs,  Thomas 

Locke,  John 

Sensationalism 

Clarke,  Samuel 

Butler,  Joseph 

Paley,  William 

Berkeley,  George 

Cambridge  Platonists 

Cudworth,  Ralph 

More,  Henry 

Hume,  David 

Charron,  Pierre 

Toland,  John 

Hartley,  David 

Priestley,  Joseph 

Condillac 

La  Mettrie 

Diderot 

D'Alembert 

Helvetius 

Holbach 

Cabanis,  J.  P.  G. 

Genovesi,  A. 

Enlightenment,  Philosophy  of  the 

Common  Sense,  Philosophy  of 

Reid,  Thomas 

Beattie,  James 

Stewart,  Dugald 

Hamilton,  William 

The  critical  philosophy  of  Kant 
sought  to  mediate  between  Rational- 
ism and  Empiricism  by  assigning  to 
either  its  proper  function  in  the  men- 
tal life ;  and,  though  Kantianism  was 
followed  by  the  rise  of  great  rational- 
istic systems  in  Germany,  in  which  the 


balance  was  overthrown  anew,  the 
teachings  of  the  Konigsberg  philoso- 
pher have  shown  the  greater  vitality 
as  being  in  consonance  with  the  spirit 
of  the  growing  sciences.  Reaction 
against  unrestrained  idealism  led  to 
Positivism,  in  which  philosophy  be- 
comes a  correlation  of  sciences.  Ma- 
terialism, after  a  brief  popularity, 
seems  to  have  passed  away  forever. 
See: 

Kant 

Herder 

Jacobi,  F.  H. 

Hamann,  J.  G. 

Krause,  K.  C.  F. 

Reinhold,  C.  E. 

Rosenkranz,  K. 

Erdmann,  J.  E. 

Trendelenburg 

Zeller,  E. 

Ulrici,  H. 

Fischer,  Kuno 

For  the  important  systems  that 
arose  after  Kant,  see: 

Fichte,  J.  G. 

Fichte,  I.  H. 

Schelling 

Hegel 

Feuerbach,  L.  A. 

Green,  T.  H. 

And  for  a  philosophy  of  will  that 
has  exercised  a  profound  influence  on 
modern  thought: 

Schopenhauer 

Pessimism 

Hartmann,  Karl  Robert 

Materialism  was  fostered  by  the  doc- 
trine of  evolution  and  the  Darwinian 
discoveries.     See: 

Moleschott,  J. 

Biichner,  F.  L. 

Vogt,  Karl 

Haeckel,  E. 


94 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


For     the     neo-Kantianism     of     the 
latest  scientific  thought,  see: 
Lange,  F.  A. 
Cohen,  Herman 
Du  Bois-Reymond,  E.  H. 
Helmholtz 
Virchow 
Wundt 
Renan 
Taine 

For  systematic  attempts  at  reconcil- 
ing philosophy  and  religion,  see: 

Schleicmiacher 

Ritter,  Heinrich 

Rosmini-Serbati 

Gioberti 

For  philosopliics  that  have  been 
made  the  basis  of  important  pedagogi- 
cal psychologies,  see : 

Hcrbart 

Fliigel,  O. 

Beneke 

Lotze 

Fechner 

Paulsen,  Friedrich 

Spiritualism  had  influential  expo- 
nents in  France  in  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.      See: 

Royer-Collard 

Cousin,  Victor 

Maine  de  Brian 

Jouff'roy,  T.  S. 

Psychical  Research 

Myers,  F.  W.  H. 

Spiritualism  found  its  reaction  In 
the  epoch-making  work  of  Comte. 
See: 

Positivism 

Agnosticism 

Comte 

Littre 

Mill,  J.  S. 


Spencer,  Herbert 
Lewes,  G.  H. 
Harrison,  Frederic 
Laas,  E. 
Riehl,  A. 

For  philosophic  thought  in  America, 
see: 

Edwards,  Jonathan 
Trascendentalism 
Emerson,  R.  W. 
Ripley,  G. 
Alcott,  A.  B. 
Channing,  W.  E. 
Thoreau,  H. 
McCosh,  J. 
Harris,  W.  T. 
Royce,  J. 
Ladd,  G.  T. 
Dewey,  J. 

Every  well-rounded  philosophical 
system  has  its  logic,  ethics,  and 
SBsthetics,  and  strictly  speaking  these 
cannot  be  divorced  from  the  discussions 
of  purely  metaphysical  problems. 
Nevertheless,  as  important  sub- 
divisions of  pliilosophy,  they  have 
received  an  amount  of  attention  that 
give  them  independent  consideration. 

A.  The  problems  of  human  con- 
duct are  discussed  minutely  in  the  gen- 
eral article  on  Ethics,  and  further  dif- 
ferentiated in  subsidiary  articles.   See: 

Ethics 

Will 

Free  Will 

Casuistry 

Chance 

Fatalism 

Determinism 

Indiffcrentism 

Egoism 

Altruism 

Energisni 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


95 


EudcTinonism 

Intuitionism 

Categorical  Imperative 

Utilitarianism 

Hutchcson 

Bentham,  J. 

Austin,  J. 

Mill,  J.  S. 

Nietzsche,  F. 

Stephen,  Leslie 

Sidgwick,  H. 

Martineau,  J. 

Green,  T.  H. 

Caird,  E. 

Alexander,  Samuel 

Fouillee 

Sinmiel,  G. 

B.  The  formal  rules  of  thought  as 
outlined  by  Aristotle  have  received 
modifications  at  the  hands  of  both 
rationalists  and  empiricists,  the  in- 
fluence of  the  latter  being,  however, 
the  more  pronounced  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  science.     See: 

Logic 

Knowledge,  Theory  of 

Induction 

Deduction 

Argument 

Syllogism 

Analysis 

Synthesis 

Abstraction 

Hypothesis 

Judgment 

Definition 

Division 

Percept 

Concept 

Connotation 

Denotation 

Obversion 

Opposition 

Comparison 


Analogy 
Identity,  Law  of 
Fallacy 
Dilemma 
Mill  J.  S. 
Jevons 
Whately,  R. 

C.  The  separate  science  of  aesthet- 
ics dates  only  from  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Its  latest  development  has  been 
along  experimental  and  anthropologi- 
cal lines.     See: 

JSsthetics 

^Esthetics,  Experimental 

Baumgarten,  A.  G. 

Lessing,  G.  E. 

Shaftesbury,  third  Earl  of 

Hogarth 

Bain 

Bosanquet 

Santayana,  George 

D.  The  psychology  of  the  present 
differs  from  earlier  investigations  of 
the  human  mind  in  its  application  of  a 
more  rigorous  scientific  method.  It  as- 
sumes no  metaphysical  substratum  for 
mental  life,  but  is  content  to  take  con- 
sciousness as  its  ultimate  fact  and  to 
study  its  forms  and  manifestations. 
Though  the  science  is  to  be  dated  only 
from  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  it  has  already  been  found 
necessary  to  divide  the  field  of  investi- 
gation for  the  purpose  of  the  more 
effective  study  of  the  mind  of  the  adult, 
the  child,  and  the  abnormal  individual, 
and  the  collective  mind  of  the  crowd. 
The  method  of  psychology  is  ulti- 
mately introspective,  but  it  is  intro- 
spection carefully  pursued  and  cor- 
rected by  the  standard  of  the  scientific 
average.  For  classification  and  meth- 
ods, see: 

Psychology 


96 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


Individual  Psychology 

Genetic  Psychology 

Child  Psychology 

Social  Psychology 

Folk-Psychology 

Insanity 

Psychology,  Experimental 

Psychological  Apparatus 

Psychophysics 

Introspection 

Phrenology 

With  consciousness  as  the  basis  for 
analysis,  psychology  finds  as  its  ulti- 
mate fact  (fl)  a  complete  independence 
of  mind  and  body;  (b)  that  the  primi- 
tive element  of  mental  life  is  sensation, 
and  sensations  depend  on  bodily  pro- 
cesses set  in  motion  by  external  stimuli. 
Sensations  are  classified  according  to 
the  organs  whose  stimulation  they  ac- 
company.    For  consciousness,  see: 

(a)      Mind 

Elements,  Conscious 

Mental  Process 

Self 

Sel  f -Consciousness 

Unity  of  Consciousness 

Double  Consciousness 

Sleep 

Dreaming 

Hypnotism 

Autosuggestion 

Somniinibulism 

Consciousness 

Noetic  Consciousness 

Meaning 

Body  and  Mind 

Subconsciousness 

Subliminal  Consciousness 

Cerebration,  Unconscious 
(t)   For  Sensation,  sec: 

Sensation 

Sensorium 


Intensity  of  Sensation 

Extension 

Duration 

Quality 

Discrimination,  Sensible 

Contrast 

Reaction 

Weber's  Law 

Limen 

Relativity,  Law  of 

(c)  For  a  Classification  of  Sensations, 
see: 
Vision 

Visual  Sensation 
Blind  Spot 
After-images 
Illusion 
Mirage 
Hallucination 
Clairvoyance 
Apparition 
Color 

Saturation 
Color-Blindness 
Audition 
Clang-Tint 
Colored  Hearing 
Fusion 
Smell 
Taste 
Touch 

Cutaneous  Sensations 
Static  Sense 
Muscle   Sense 
Muscle-Reading 
Pain 
Fatigue 

Common  Sensation 
Organic  Sensations 

From  simple  sensations  are  built  up 
the  higher  intellectual  processes  (per- 
ception, idea,  association  of  ideas, 
etc.).     A    corresponding    clement    lias 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


97 


been  brought  forward  to  form  the  sub- 
stratum of  our  Linotional  life,  and  has 
been  denominated  Affection.  From  a 
combination  of  sensational  and  affec- 
tive elements  arise  the  various  pro- 
cesses classified  under  the  general 
designation,  Will.  It  is  thus  that  the 
new  psychology  improves  upon  the 
threefold  division  of  Intellect,  Reason, 
and  Will  in  the  older  psychology. 
See: 

Affection 

Conation 

Attention 

Effort 

Interest 

Tendency 

Disposition 

Faculty 

Mental  Constitution 

{a)   For  the  Complex  Sensational  Pro- 
cesses : 

Perception 

Idea 

Movement,  Perception  of 

Locality,  Perception  of 

Distance,  Perception  of 

Figure 

Rhythm 

Melody 

Association  of  Ideas 

Retention 

Reproduction  of  Ideas 

IMemory 

Apperception 

Recognition 

Familiarity 

Apprehension 

Imagination 

Judgment 

Ratiocination 

Understanding 

Abstraction 


Intellect 

(6)   For    the   Affective   or    Emotional 
Processes : 
Feeling 
Emotion 
Mood 

Temperament 
Mental  Constitution 
Sentiment 
Sympathy 
Antipathy 
Fear 
Anger 
Belief 

Expectation 
Expression 
Laughter 
Language 
Gesture 

(c)   For  the  Will  Processes: 

Will 

Action 

Instinct 

Impulse 

Desire 

Habit 

Practice 
In  the  field  of  psychological  investi- 
gation, Germany  holds  the  first  rank. 
Excellent  work  has  been  done  in 
France,  especially  in  the  field  of  abnor- 
mal psychology,  and  in  England  and 
America,  where  German  thought  has 
blended  with  the  native  empiricism. 
See: 

(a)      Weber,  E.  H. 
Fechner,  G.  T. 
Helmholtz,  H. 
Her  in  g,  E. 
Flechsig,  P.  E. 
Stumpf,  K. 
Miiller,  G.  E. 


98 


PHILOSOPHY  AND  PSYCHOLOGY 


Wundt,  W. 

(b)  Bain,  Alexander 
Romanes,  G.  J. 
Galton,  F. 
Stout,  G.  F. 
Sully,  James 

(c)  Binet,  A. 
Charcot,  J.  M. 


Ribot,  T.  A. 
(d)      James,  William 
Ladd,  G.  T. 
Miinsterbcrg,  H. 
Dewey,  John 
Titchener,  E.  B. 
Baldwin,  J.  ^I. 
Hall,  G.  S. 


Ollfapt^r  B.    ICattguag^  an&  ICtt^ratur^ 


THE  tracing  of  the  mutual  relations  of  the  various  languages  of  the- 
world,  and  the  study  of  their  similarities  and  differences,  is  the 
task  of  the  science  of  comparative  philology.  The  phonetic,  or 
mechanical  side,  the  inflectional,  or  constructive,  and  the  syntactic, 
or  psychological  aspect,  arc  the  three  factors  which  combine  to 
form  human  speech.     See : 


A.   IGaitguagf 


1.  Philology. 

Semasiology 

Philology 

Slang 

Grammar 

Metaphor 

Dialect 

Prosody 

Phonetics 

Rhyme 

Accent 

Assonance 

Phonetic  Law 

Alphabet 

Grimm's  T.aw 

Inscriptions 

Verner's  Law 

Paleography 

Etymology 

Runes 

Etymology,  Figures  of 

Spelling 

Grassman's  Law 

Spelling  Reform 

Inflection 

Rhetoric 

Declension 

Pronunciation 

Comparison 

Nouns 

2.  For  a  classification  of  langu 

Name 

in  related  groups,  see: 

Gender 

Adjective 

(a)  For  the  Monosyllabic  Type- 

Pronoun 

Chinese  Language 

Article 

Adverb 

(b)  For  the  Agglutinative  Type 

Preposition 

African  Languages 

Conjunction 

Egyptian  (under  Egypt) 

Interjection 

Coptic  (under  Copts) 

Verb 

Ural-Altaic 

Participle 

Finnish  Language 

Conjugation 

Turkish  Language 

Reduplication 

Japanese  Language 

Ablaut 

Dravidians 

Umlaut 

Tamils' 

Syntax,  Figures  of 

Telugus 

Sentence 

Phihppine  Languages 

99 


100 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


(c)  For  the  Polysynthetk  Type  (In- 

corporating): 

American     Indian     (under     In- 
dians, American)  : 

(d)  For  the  Inflectional  Type: 

Semitic  Languages 

Cuneiform  Inscriptions 

Aramaic 

Syriac  Language 

Samaritan  Language 

Moabitish      Language       (under 

Moabite  Stone) 
Arabic  Language 
Inflectional  also  are: 
(i)   The  Languages  of  India: 

Sanskrit 

Pali 

Prakrit 

Assamese   (under  Assam) 

Bengali 

Ceylon ese   (under  Ceylon) 

Gujarat! 

Hindustani 

Kashmiri 

Maldive 

Marathl 

Naipali 

Panjabi 

Sindhi 

Uriya 
(ii)   The  Iranian  Languages: 

Iranian  Languages 

Old  Persian 

Avcsta 

Pahlavi 

Persian 

Afghan 

Baluchi 

Kurdish 

Ossetic 
(iii)  Armenian 
(iv)   Albanian 


(v)    Mediterranean  Languages : 

Greek 

Italic  Languages 

Latin 

Italian 

Spanish 

Catalan 

French 

Proven9al 

Rumanian 
(vi)      The  Teutonic  Languages: 

Teutonic  Languages 

Gothic 

Icelandic 

Norwegian 

Swedish 

Dutch 

German 

Plattdeutsch 

Frisian 

Flemish 

Pennsylvania  Dutch 

Anglo-Saxon 

English 

Americanisms 

Pidgin-English 
(vii)   The  Celtic  Languages: 

Celtic  Languages 

Cornish 

(viii)   The    Balto-Slavic    Languages: 
Old  Prussian 
Lettic 
Lithuanian 

(ix)   The  Slavic  Languages: 
Slavic  Languages 
Old  Church  Slavic 
Polish 
Russian 

See  also: 

Universal  Language 

Esperanto 

N'oiajjiik 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


101 


3.  For  tlie  great  names  in  the  field 
of  comparative  philology,  see: 
Ascoli,  G.  I. 
Bartsch,  K.  F. 
Becker,  K.  F. 
Bopp,  F. 
Bosworth,  J. 
Brugmann,  F.  K. 
Dclbriick,  B. 
Fick,  A. 
Gabelenz,  H.  C. 
Grimm,  J.  L.  K. 
Grundtvig,  S.  H. 
Knudsen,  K. 
Kiilbing,  E. 
Magnussen,  A. 


Norccn,  A.  G. 
Paul,  H. 
Pott,  A.  F. 
Rafn,  C.  C. 
Rask,  R.  K. 
Schlegel,  F. 
Schlcgcl,  A. 
Schleicher,  A. 
Schmidt,  J. 
Steinthal,  H. 
Sweet,  H. 
Taylor,  W. 
Tookc,  J.  H. 
Verner,  K.  A. 
Vigfusson,  G. 
Webster,  Noah 


B.    ICitfratitr? 


Literature,  which  is  the  expres- 
sion, more  or  less  permanent,  in 
language,  of  human  thought  and 
emotions,  would  include  in  its  widest 
sense  every  written  record  of  man's 
activity,  the  university  man's  disserta- 
tion on  the  Coleoptera  no  less  than 
Shelley's  "  Ode  to  the  Skylark."  Such  a 
wide  connotation  of  the  term  would  ren- 
der any  classification  within  reasonable 
space  limits  impossible,  and  in  the 
present  chapter  the  matter  has  been 
restricted  to  the  treatment  of  what  we 
ordinarily  call  Belles-lettres.  The 
great  works  in  history  and  the  various 
fields  of  science  and  philosophy  will  be 
accounted  for  in  the  chapters  with  the 
subject  matter  of  which  they  are  more 
intimately  connected.  A  more  consid- 
erable difficulty  than  that  of  settling 
limits  to  the  scope  of  the  term  literature 
is  that  of  determining  a  reasonably 
fixed  standard  of  classification,  owing 
to    the    twofold    aspect    under    which 


every  literary  monument  presents  itself 
— as  form  or  matter.  Taking,  for 
instance,  any  specific  department  of 
literature,  such  as  satire,  we  find  that 
our  satirist  may  be,  as  regards  form, 
a  lyrist,  novelist,  essayist,  or  dramatic 
writer.  The  man  we  call  poet  may, 
in  the  same  manner,  have  turned  the 
poetic  form  to  the  uses  of  comedy  or 
of  the  lyric  spirit.  Again,  commonly, 
a  literary  artist  will  have  attained 
eminence  in  different  categories  of 
literature,  as  the  drama,  say,  criticism, 
and  poetry,  and  the  necessity  arises  of 
partially  and  often  arbitrarily  char- 
acterizing such  a  man.  A  certain 
measure  of  violence  is,  therefore,  un- 
avoidable when  the  attempt  is  made  to 
cast  any  great  literary  figure  into  a 
rigidly  labeled  department ;  but  there 
is  sufficient  justification  for  the  scheme 
in  the  fact  that,  as  a  rule,  the  great 
literary  figure  does  stand  out  pre- 
eminently in  one  department  of  the  art, 


102 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


and,  remembering  that  the  line  of 
division  is  by  no  means  rigid,  we  may 
classify  him  accordingly. 

The  historical  study  of  literature 
may  be  pursued  in  two  ways.  There  is 
the  vertical  order,  as  it  may  be  called, 
in  which  we  take  up  the  national  liter- 
atures one  by  one,  a  method  of  study  in 
which  the  various  literary  genres  are 
considered  at  the  same  time,  and  where- 
in the  formal  side  is  naturally  subor- 
dinated to  the  investigation  of  the 
development  of  national  character  as 
revealed  in  the  national  literature. 
There  is  also  what  may  be  called  the 
horizontal  order,  where  our  attention 
is  confined  to  one  kind  of  literature  at 
a  time,  whose  development  is  traced 
from  the  beginning  to  the  present  day, 
across  national  boundaries,  the  process 
essentially  being  one  of  thematic  unity, 
as  compared  with  the  preceding  method 
of  national  unity.  Either  method  has 
its  advantages,  and  the  material  in  the 
New  International  Encyclopadia  has 
been  so  treated  as  to  lend  itself  to  either 
form  of  study  ;  but,  whereas  the  student 
or  reader  who  would  devote  himself  to 
the  study  of  national  literatures  may 
be  left  to  his  own  resources  in  view  of 
the  obvious  classification  followed,  the 
need  for  guidance  is  apparent  in  the 
second.  Emphasis,  therefore,  in  the 
present  chapter  is  laid  on  the  formal 
development  of  the  literary  form,  tlic 
underlying  princ'i])le  being  the  belief 
that  the  larger  number  of  students  are 
apt  to  turn  to  a  specialized  subject, 
like  the  Iiistory  of  the  novel  or  the  epic, 
rather  than  to  the  exj)anded  story  of 
an  entire  national  literature. 

I.  The  National  Litekatures. 
American  Literature 


Arabic  Language  and  Literature 

Armenian  Language  and  Literature 

Australian  Literature 

Bengali  Language  and  Literature 

Breton  Literature 

Canadian  Literature 

Catalan  Language  and  Literature 

Chinese  Language  and  Literature 

Cuban  Literature 

Czech  Literature 

Danish  Language  and  Literature 

Dutch  Literature 

Egyptian  Language  and  Literature 
(under  Egypt) 

English  Literature 

Finnish  Language  and  Literature 

Flemisli  Language  and  Literature 

French  Literature 

Frisian  Language  and  Literature 

German  Literature 

Greek  Literature 

Hindustani   Language    and   Litera- 
ture 

Hungarian  Literature 

Icelandic  Literature 

Iranian  Languages  and  Literatures 

Irish  Literature 

Italian  Literature 

Japanese  Literature 

Jewish  Language  and  Literature 
(under  Jews) 

Latin  Literature 

Lettic  Language  and  Literature 

Lithuanian    Language    and    Litera- 
ture 

Mexican  Literature 

Norwegian  Literature 

Old    Church    Slavic   Language   and 
Literature 

Pahlavi  Language  and  Literature 

Persian  Literature 

Polish  l>iterature 

Portuguese  Literature 

Portusuese-Brazilian   Literature 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


103 


Romance  Literatures 
Rumanian    Language    and    Litera- 
ture 
Russian  Literature 
Scottish  Language  and  Literature 
Spanish  Literature 
Spanish-American  Literature 
Swedish   Language   and   Literature 
Syriac  Language  and  Literature 
Turkish  Language  and  Literature 
Yiddfsh 

II.  The  Literary  Forms.  The 
broadest  subdivision  in  literature  ac- 
cording to  form  is  that  into  prose  and 
poetry ;  and,  though  it  is  often  very 
difficult  to  differentiate  one  from  the 
other  in  fact,  and  always  hard  to  de- 
scribe the  distinction  between  them  in 
theory,  the  common  definitions  of  prose 
as  the  oi'dinary  mode  of  speech  and 
poetry  as  speech  figurative,  cadenced, 
and  cast  within  certain  compara- 
tively rigid  forms,  may  be  followed 
safely  enough  for  practical  pur- 
poses. Either,  taken  in  itself,  may  be 
subdivided  into  forms  of  narrower  con- 
notation, such  as  essay  and  novel  under 
prose,  epic  and  l^'ric  under  poetry. 
Here,  however,  appears  the  inconsis- 
tency already  mentioned  as  inherent  in 
literary  classification ;  for  the  earliest 
scientific  essays  of  the  Greeks  were 
•written  in  verse,  while  Walt  Whitman's 
lyric  spirit  finds  expression  in  a  medi- 
um closely  akin  to  Ruskin's  fervid 
prose.  Again,  the  drama  is  probably 
nowadays  regarded  as  a  prose  form, 
though  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  world's 
greatest  plays  bear  the  poetic  form. 
Poetry,  then,  if  we  exclude  the  drama, 
embraces  the  two  subdivisions  of  the 
epic  and  the  lyric.  In  the  history  of 
literary   development,   poetry   precedes 


prose,    and   of   the    two    poetic    forms 
the  epic,  as  a  rule,  antedates  the  lyric. 

1.  Epic  Poetry.  The  epic  may 
be  defined  as  a  lengthy  narrative  in 
verse,  dealing  with  a  subject  of  great 
magnitude  in  character,  national  or 
descriptive  of  a  great  movement.  A 
distinction  may  be  made  between  the 
epic  which  is  the  spontaneous  expres- 
sion of  national  life,  constructed  at  an 
early  period  in  national  development 
out  of  pre-existing  minor  poetic  forms, 
and  the  artificial  epic  of  a  more  ad- 
vanced cultural  stage,  which  is  the  work 
of  a  single  mind  and  in  consequence 
purposive  in  its  nature  rather  than 
spontaneous.  Mention  should  also  be 
made  of  the  mock  or  beast  epic,  in 
nature  largely  satirical.  See  Epic 
Poetry;  and,  for  the  great  epics  and 
epic  poets  of  the  world's  literature,  the 
following  titles : 
Sanskrit  : 

IVIahabharata 

Ramayana 

Purana 
Persian  : 

Firdausi 

Shah  Namah 

Rust  am 
Greek: 

Homer 

Age  of  Epic  Poetry   (under  Greek 
Literature) 

Cyclic  Poets 
Latin  : 

Vergil 

Ji^neas 

Lucan 

Silius  Italicus 

Statius 
French: 

Chansons  de  geste 


104 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


Roland 
Aymon 
Ogier  the  Dane 

Spanish  : 

Ercilla  y  Zuniga 

Gekman : 

Nibelungenlied 
Klopstock 

Italian  : 
Dante 
Boiardo 
Ariosto 
Tasso 

Portuguese: 
CaniOes 

Norse  : 
Edda 
Saga 

Finnish  : 

Kalevala 
English  : 

Beowulf 

Milton 

The  Beast  Epic: 
Batrachomyomachia 
Reynard  the  Fox 

2.  The  Lyric.  Lyric  poetry,  as 
the  expression  of  personal  feeling,  is 
the  most  subjective  of  all  literary 
forms.  Originally  written  to  be  sung, 
the  lyric  has  remained  the  nearest  ap- 
proacii  in  literature  to  absolute  music. 
Its  scope  is  as  wide  as  human  emo- 
tion, broadening  in  the  course  of  its 
development  with  the  expansion  of 
human  sympathies.  Its  formal  varia- 
tions are  numerous.     See: 

Lyric  Poetry 

Versification 

Sonnet 


Ode 

Ballade 

Rondeau 

Madrigal 

Canzone 

Macaronic  Verse 

Rhyme 

Lyric  poetry  attained  great  perfec- 
tion in  ancient  Greece,  though  its  field 
was  narrower  than  that  of  modern 
poetry  for  comparative  lack  of  the 
nature  element,  which,  with  us,  is  so 
conspicuous  a  feature  of  lyric  expres- 
sion. The  Roman  genius  was,  on  the 
whole,  unfavorable  to  the  fostering  of 
the  lyric  spirit.  In  the  East,  Persia 
produced  a  succession  of  poets  of  great 
excellence.  See,  for  the  great  names 
in  the  realm  of  lyric  poetry: 

Sanskrit: 

Kalidasa 
Persian  : 

Nizami 

Omar  Khaj'yam 

Sadi 

Hafiz 

Jami 

Latin  : 

Catullus 

Tibullus 

Horace 

Ovid 

Propertius 

Ausonius 

Prudeiitius 
Greek: 

Alcman 

Callinus 

Archilochus 

Tyrtaeus 

Siinonides 

Solon 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


105 


Alcaeus 

Sappho 

Anacreon 

Theognis 

Hipponax 

Pindar 

Bacchylides 

Timotheus 

Theocritus 

Bion 

Moschus 

Herondas 

The  lyric  poetry  of  the  Middle 
Ages  was  largely  ecclesiastical,  the 
Latin  hymns  of  the  period  being 
especially  marked  by  extraordinary  ef- 
fects of  rhyme.  The  court  singers  of 
France  and  Germany,  however,  fos- 
tered the  love  theme  assiduously.  With 
the  Revival  of  Learning  came  a  great 
impetus  to  the  poetic  expression  of 
secular  emotions,  Italy  being  the  first 
to  feel  the  impulse  of  the  new  move- 
ment. Lyricism  languished  during 
the  domination  of  classical  ideals  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies, but,  freed  from  the  bond  of  ar- 
tificiality, entered  upon  an  unprece- 
dented development  towards  the  end 
of  the  latter  century.     See: 

Hymnology 

Troubadours 

Trouvere 

Minnesinger 

Meistersinger 

Goliardic   Literature 

Romanticism ; 
and  for  tiie  lyric  poets  of  Western  Eu- 
rope: 

French : 

Marie  de  France 
Meung,  Jean  de 
ViUon 


Malherbe 

Pleiade 

Ronsard 

Grasset 

Chenier,  Andre  Marie 

Chenier,  Marie  Joseph 

Beranger 

Lamartine 

Delavigne 

Hugo 

Musset 

Gautier 

Leconte  de  Lisle 

Baudelaire 

Heredia,  Jose 

Sully-Prudhomme 

Coppee 

Verlaine 

Mallarme 

Regnier,  H. 

Rimbaud,  J.  A. 

Provencal: 
Roumanille 
Jasmin 
Mistral,  F. 
Gras,  Felix 
Felibi'ige 

Italian  : 

Cavalcanti,  Guido 

Cino  da  Pistoja 

Dante 

Petrarch 

Colonna,  Vittoria 

Guarini 

Marini 

Chiabrera 

Metastasio 

Bondi,  Clemcnte 

Foscolo,  Ugo 

Leopardi 

Monti,  V. 

Alcardi 

Giusti,  Giuseppe 


106 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


CarduccI 
Graf,  A. 

Spanish  : 

Lopez  de  Ayala,  Pedro 

Santillana 

Carcilasso  de  la  Vega 

Leon,  Luis  de 

Figueroa,  Francisco  de 

Argensola 

Mendoza,  Diego  Hurtado  de 

Gongora  y  Argotc 

Zorrilla  y  Moral 

Iriarte  y  Oroposa 

Lista  y  Aragon 

Melendez  Valdes 

Espronceda 

Portuguese: 
Ferreira,  A. 
Gomes  de  Amorim 

German : 

Walther  von  der  Vogelwelde 

Sachs,  Hans 

Fleming,  Paul 

Opitz 

Burger 

Kleist,  E.  C. 

Goethe 

Schiller 

Schlcgel,  A.  W. 

Arndt 

Novalis 

Chamisso 

Uhland 

Korner 

EichcndorfF 

Heine 

Riickcrt 

Frciligrath 

Bodcnstcdt 

Schcffel 

Auerspcrg 

Hamorling 

Ambrosius,  Johanna 


Dutch: 

Marnix 

Vondel 

Bilderdijk 

Kate,  J.  J.  ten 
Flemish  : 

Maerlant 

Bijns 

Conscience,  H. 

The  lyric  poetry  of  Northern  and 
Eastern  Europe  is  recent  in  origin, 
going  back  no  further  than  the 
eighteenth  century.  It  has,  as  a  rule, 
been  under  the  influence  of  the  great 
literary  movements  of  the  West,  but, 
though  largely  mimetic  in  form,  has 
been  made  the  expression  of  an  intense 
national  consciousness.     See: 

Swedish  : 

Bellman 

Tegner 

Atterbom 

Runeberg 

Snoilsky 
Danish  : 

Heibcrg,  J.  L. 

Evald 

Riciiardt 
Norwegian  : 

Weliiavcn 

Wcrgeland 
Hungarian: 

Kisfaludy 

Arany 

Petofi 

Erdelyi 
Russian  : 

Dcrzhavin 

Pushkin 

KoltsofF 

Ijermontoff 

Slicftchenko 

Nekrasoff 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


107 


Polish  : 

Naruszewicz 

Karpinski 

Mickicwicz 

Kniaznin 

Slowacki 

Krasfnski 

Pol 

Asnyck 

The  origins  of  the  English  lyric 
poetry  may  be  traced  back,  if  it  be  so 
desired,  to  early  Anglo-Saxon  times. 
The  continuous  history  begins  with 
Chaucer.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful 
lyrics  of  the  language  are  embodied 
in  the  works  of  the  Elizabethan  dram- 
atists, after  wjiom,  and  jMilton,  the  art 
declines  and  hardens  until  revived  by 
Burns  and  Wordsworth.  English  lyric 
in  the  nineteenth  century  lias  covered 
the  field  of  human  sympathies,  from 
Blake's  unseen  world  to  Tennyson's 
studies  in  evolution  and  Kipling's  in 
machine  construction.     See: 

English  : 
Caedmon 
Ormulum 
Layamon 
Lydgate,  John 
Minot,  Laurence 
Barbour,  John 
Gower 
Chaucer 
Sackville 
Shakespeare 
Jonson 
Milton 

Ramsay,  Allan 
Donne 
Herrick 
Herbert 
Waller 
Crashaw 


Cowley 

Vaughan 

Gay 

Savage,  Richard 

Chatterton 

Shenstone 

Young,  Edward 

Thomson 

Gray 

Collins 

Cowper 

Blake 

Bums 

Hogg 

Wordsworth 

Lander 

]\Ioore 

Keats 

Shelley 

Praed 

Proctor,  B.  W. 

FitzGerald 

Tennyson 

Browning 

Clough 

Arnold,  Matthew 

Ingelow,  Jean 

Patmore 

Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriel 

Rossetti,  Christina 

Morris 

Arnold,  Edwin 

Aytoun,  W.  E. 

Swinburne 

Massey,  G. 

Henley 

Watson,  W. 

Kipling 

MejTiell,  A.  C. 

Sharp,  W. 

American  : 

Freneau 
Barlow,  Joel 


108 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


Key 

Halleck 

Bryant 

Drake 

Emerson 

Whittier 

Longfellow 

Holmes 

Poe 

Lowell 

Hoffman,  C.  F. 

Whitman 

Cary,  Alice  and  Phoebe 

Timrod 

Howe,  Julia  Ward 

Stedman 

Aldrich 

Lanier 

O'Reilly,  J.  B. 

Field,   Eugene 

Riley 

Miller,  Joaquin 

Gilder,  R.  W. 

3.  The  Drama.  The  Drama  has 
been  placed  high  among  mimetic  forms, 
because  of  tlie  contribution  it  lays  on 
the  otiier  arts,  thus  combining  within 
itself  their  several  qualities.  Action 
and  character  are  the  subject  matter. 
The  means  are  bodily  motion,  which 
gives  tlie  sculptor's  effect ;  language, 
wlilch  is  the  instrinnent  of  the  poet ; 
music,  and  scenery,  and  costume,  to 
which  painting  and  architecture  give 
their  share.  The  origins  of  the  drama 
arc  to  be  found,  most  probably,  in  early 
religious  ceremonial.  Festivals  marked 
by  singing  and  dancing,  the  latter 
more  or  less  symbolic  in  character,  are 
common  to  peoples  in  a  primitive  stage; 
and  the  line  of  progress  is  along  the 
development  of  the  action  and  tiie 
spoken  dialogue,  at  the  expense  of  the 


chant,  to  complete  secularization  of  the 
drama.  The  principles  of  the  drama 
as  propounded  by  Aristotle  have  re- 
mained for  the  most  part  the  same ; 
the  mechanical  technique  has  varied 
widely  from  original  conditions.     See: 

Drama 

Theatre 

Stage 

Chorus 

Act 

Ballet 

Burlesque 

Farce 

Interlude 

Masque 

Vaudeville 

Pantomime 

Puppet 

Atellanae 

]\Iime 

Prologue 

Epilogue 

Greek  drama  had  its  origin  in  the 
worsliip  of  Dionj'sus.  Witii  ^Eschj'lus, 
tragedy  is  profoundly  religious,  and 
the  actor's  speeches  arc  still  subordi- 
nated to  the  clioruses ;  Sophocles 
strengthened  the  element  of  action ; 
Euripides  thoroughly  humanized  trag- 
edy. Attic  comedy  was  fierce  in  per- 
sonal satire  and  unbridled  in  speech. 
The  Latin  drama  was  sedulously  mod- 
eled on  the  Greek.  The  origin  of  the 
Sanskrit  drama  is  disputed,  some  deriv- 
ing it  from  the  Greek,  others  assigning 
it  an  independent  development.  See, 
for  writers  and  plays : 
Sanskrit: 

Sudraka 

Kalidasa 

Bliavabimti 

Sakuntala 

Mricchakatika 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


109 


Greek: 
jEschylus 
Phrynichus 
Sophocles 
Euripides 
.   Aristophanes 
Agathon 
Epicharmus 
Eupolis 
Menander 

Latin  : 
Plautus 
Terence 
Seneca 

In  Medieval  times,  practically  the 
only  species  of  dramatic  performance 
was  the  religious  spectacles  of  the 
Church,  in  which  the  purpose  was  di- 
dactic. See:  Miracle  Play;  Mor- 
ality ;  Interlude  ;  Passion  Play. 

Out  of  the  religious  performances  of 
the  Middle  Ages  the  modern  drama 
developed.  In  France,  which  served 
as  a  model  to  the  Continent,  an  elabor- 
ate system  of  rules  was  built  up,  sup- 
posedly bringing  the  drama  into  con- 
formity with  the  standards  of  the 
classic  age.  The  classic  ideals,  with 
their  restriction  of  human  emotions  to 
kings  and  nobles,  were  overthrown  on 
the  Continent  in  the  first  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  since  when  the 
scope  of  tlio  drama  has  been  widened 
to  embrace  the  entire  complex  of  so- 
ciety. Like  the  novel,  the  drama  of 
the  latest  days  has  become  largely 
purposive.     See,  for  the  writers : 

French: 
Mairet 
Regnard 
Corneille 
Racine 
Moliere 


Marivaux 
Chenier,  M.  J. 
Crebillon 
Beaumarchais 
Scribe 
Vigny 
Hugo 
Legouve 
Labiche 
Ponsard 
Augier 
Dumas 
Pailleron 
Meilhac 
Halevy 
Sardou 
Rostand 
Maeterlinck 
Richepin,  J. 
Comedie  Fran9aise 
Italian  : 
Trissino 
Maffei 
Goldoni 
Gozzi 
Alfieri 
]\IanzonI 
Giacometti 
Annunzio 

Spanish  : 
Encina 
Vega  Carpio 
Calderon  de  la  Barca 
Moreto  y  Cabana 
Moratin,  Lcandro  Fernandez 
Gil  y  Zarate 

Lopez  de  Ayala,  Adelardo 
•  Hartzenbusch,  J.  E. 
Echegaray 
Breton  de  los  Herreros 

Portuguese  : 
Sa  de  Miranda 
Almeida-Garrett 


110 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


The  primacy  in  Continental  drama, 
so  long  iield  by  the  French,  may  be  said 
to  be  disputed  at  the  present  day  by 
the  Teutons  and  the  Slavs,  more  par- 
ticularly the  Scandinavian  branch  of 
the  Teutons.  See: 
German : 

Lessing 

Goethe 

Schiller 

Kotzebue 

Grillparzer 

Laube 

Gutzkow 

Anzengruber 

Heyse 

Sudermann 

Hauptmann 

Lindau,  P. 

Hartleben 

Fulda 

Swedish  : 
Almqvist 
Strindberg 

Danish  : 

Holberg 
Oehlenschlager 

Norwegian  : 
Ibsen 
Bjornson 

Russian  : 
SumarakofF 
GriboyedofF 
Gogol 
Ostrovski 
Zagoskin,  M.  N. 
Tolstoy,  Aloxoi 
Tolstoy,  LyofF 
Gorky 

Polish  : 
Frcdro 
Kniaznin 


Hungarian: 

Kisfaludy,  Karoly 

Katona 

Szigligeti 

While  Continental  Europe  was  en- 
slaved by  the  rigid  formulas  of  the 
classicists,  in  England  the  Romantic 
drama  flourished  from  the  beginning. 
The  Elizabethan  age  is  the  golden  age 
of  the  drama  of  the  world.  Following 
the  Elizabethans  came  the  decline,  ar- 
rested partially  by  the  talent  of  Dryden 
and  Congreve  during  tiie  Restoration, 
and  of  Goldsmith  and  Sheridan  in  the 
later  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
In  the  nineteenth  century,  England 
brought  forth  no  dramatic  writer  of 
conspicuous  genius.  See: 
English: 

Udall 

Norton 

Sackville 

Kyd 

Lodge 

Peele 

Marston 

Greene 

Marlowe 

Siiakespeare 

Nash 

Dekker 

Middleton 

Jonson 

Massingcr 

Beaumont  and  Fletcher 

Ford 

Webster 

Davenant 

Dryden 

Wycherley 

Otway 

Congreve 

Farquhar 

Goldsmith 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


111 


Colman,  the  Elder 

Sheridan 

Cohnan,  the  Younger 

Fitzball,  Edward 

Knowles,  J.   S. 

Beddoes,  T.  L. 

Taylor,  Tom 

Robertson,  T.  W. 

Sims,  G.  R. 

Boucicault 

Pincro 

Jones,  H.  A. 

Shaw,  George  Bernard 

Phillips,  Stephen 

Barrie,  J.  M. 

American  : 

Dunlap,  William 
Payne,  John  Howard 
Brougham,  John 
Boker 

Sargent,  Epes 
Carleton,  Henry  Guy 
Howard,  Bronson 
Campbell,  Bartley 
Thompson,  Denman 
Harrigan,  Edward 
De  Mille,  Henry 
Belasco,  David 
Fitch,  William  Clyde 

A  partial  list  of  the  more  note- 
worthy actors,  of  all  times  and  all  na- 
tions, is  as  follows : 

Anderson,  Mary  A. 

Archer,  Belle 

Arnould,  Sophie 

Arthur,  Julia 

Bancroft,  Mary  E.  W. 

Barrett,  Wilson 

Barry,  Elizabeth 

Barry,  Spranger 

Bates,  Blanche 

Bellamy,  George  Anne 

Bernhardt,    Sarah 


Bctterton,  Thomas 
Betty,  W.  H.  W. 
Booth,  Agnes 
Booth,  Barton 
Booth,  Edwin 
Booth,  Junius  Brutus 
Bracegirdle,  Anne 
Burbage,  Richard 
Campbell,  Beatrice 
Clarke,  J.  S. 
Clive,  Catherine 
Coghlan,  Charles 
Coghlan,  Rose 
Coquelin,  B.  C. 
Crane,  W.  H. 
Cushman,  Charlotte 
Davenport,  E.  L. 
Davenport,  Fanny 
Dejazet,  P.  V. 
Devrient,  L. 
Drew 
Duse 

Farren,  Elizabeth 
Fisher,  Charles 
Fiske,  Minnie  M. 
Florence,  W.  J. 
Forbes-Robertson,  J. 
Forrest,  Edwin 
Garrick,   David 
Gilbert,  J.  G. 
GiUette,  W.  H. 
Goodwin,  N.  C. 
Haase,  F. 
Hackett,  James  H. 
Hading,  Jane 
Hare,  John 
Haworth,  Joseph 
Heme,  James  A. 
Irving,  Henry 
Janauschek,  Fanny 
Jordan,  Dorothy 
Kean,  Edmund 
Kean,  C.  J. 
Kemble,  Chas. 


112 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


Kemble,  Frances  Anne 
Kemble,  John  Pliilip 
Kendal,  Mr. 
Kendal,  Mrs. 
Lecouvreur,  Adrienne 
Lemaitre,  A.  L. 
JMcCulIough,  J.  E. 
Macklin,  C'Jiarles 
IMacready,  W.  C. 
Mansfield,  Richard 
Mathews,  Charles 
Mathews,  C.  J. 
Modjeska,  H. 
Morris,  Clara 
]Mounet-Sully 
Oldfield,  Anne 
Payne,  J.  H. 
Placide,  H. 
Rachel,  :\Ille. 
Rehan,  Ada 
Re  jane,  IMnie. 
Ristori,  A. 
Robson,  Stuart 
Roscius 

Russell,  Sol  Smith 
Salvini,  A. 
Salvini,  T. 
Siddons,  Sarah 
Sonncnthal,  A. 
Sothern,  E.  H. 
Stoddart,  J.   H. 
Thompson,  Dcnman 
Tree,  Beerbohm 
Vestris,  Mme. 
Wallack,  J.  L. 
Wallack,  J.  W. 
Willard,  E.  S. 
Woffinf^ton,  Margaret 
Wyndham,   Charles 

4.  The  Novel.  The  novel,  at 
present  the  most  flexible  of  literary 
forms,  though  of  recent  date  in  its 
present  character,  traces  back  to  early 
and  multiple  sources.     The  beast  tale, 


common  to  all  nations,  the  narrative 
of  adventure,  and  the  story  of  things 
supernatural,  were  the  precursors  of 
the  novel.  The  love  element  becomes 
pronounced  in  the  old  Greek  romances 
and  assumes  primary  importance  in  the 
romances  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
romance,  it  may  be  broadly  put,  passed 
into  the  novel,  when  the  tale  began  to 
assume  the  character  of  a  picture  of 
contemporary  life,  a  development  to  be 
assigned  to  the  sixteenth  century. 
See  the  article  Novel. 

The  geat  monuments  and  figures  of 
pre-modern  story-telling  are  the  fol- 
lowing : 

Sanskbit  : 
Dandin 
Subandhu 
Bana 

Arabic  :    . 

Arabian  Nights 

Greek  and  Roman: 
Heliodorus 
Ephesiaca 
Daphnis  and  Chloe 
Apuleius 

Apollonius  of  Tyre 
Petronius 

In  Mcdia?val  times,  the  romance 
flourished,  combining  in  itself  elements 
of  tlic  epic,  the  beast  fable,  and  the  tale 
of  adventure  and  of  love.  Materials 
were  largely  drawn  from  ancient  his- 
tory, and  the  stories  gathered  around 
great  figures  of  antiquity  and  the  early 
Middle  Ages.     See: 

Romance 

Fabliaux 

Gesta  Romanorum 

Alexander,  Legend  of 

Charlomagne  Cycle  of  Romances 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


113 


Chrestien  de  Troyes 

Wace 

Roman  de  la  Rose 

Perceval 

Tristram 

Lancelot  of  the  Lake 

Malory 

Grail,  The  Holy 

Merlin 

Chaucer 

Morte  d' Arthur 

Euphues 

Amadis  of  Gaul 

Romance  lacked  characterization 
and  reality.  With  the  appearance  of 
tales  embodying  observation  of  real 
types  and  description  of  manners,  the 
novel  as  it  is  to-day  begins.  The 
origin  is  generally  placed  in  Spain, 
where  the  rise  of  the  picaresque  tale 
marks  the  first  step  in  character  de- 
lineation. The  subsequent  develop- 
ment is  rapid  to  present  conditions, 
when  the  novel  has  become  the  all  em- 
bracing term  for  all  prose  fiction, 
realistic,  romantic,  adventurous,  or  di- 
dactic.    See  for  the  writers : 

French: 

Scudery,  Madeleine  de 

Lafayette,  Marie  Madeleine  de 

Scarron 

Lesage 

Voltaire 

Genlis,  Countess  de 

Prevost  d'Exiles 

Saint-Pierre 

Stendhal 

Balzac 

Hugo 

Dumas,  the  Elder 

Sue 

Erckmann-Chatrian 

Kock,  Paul  de 


Sand,  George 
Merimee,  P. 
Flaubert 
Goncourt 
Fcuillet 
Theuriet 
Daudet 
Loti,  Pierre 
Zola 
Bourget 
Margueritte,  P, 
Prevost,  E.  M. 

Italian  : 
Boccaccio 
Manzoni 

Aniicis 

Fogazzaro,  A. 
Verga,  G. 

Annunzio,  Gabriele  d' 
Farina,  S. 
Serao,  Matilda 

Spanish  : 
Cervantes 
Aleman 

Valera  y  Alcala  Gallano 
Galdos 

Palacio  Valdes 
Alar con 
Pereda 
Pardo  Bazan 

German : 
Goethe 
Fouque 
Gutzkow 
Eichendorff 
Alexis,  W. 
HaufF 
Laube 
Auerbach 
Reuter,  Fritz 
Tieck,  L. 
Freytag 
Storm,  Theodor 


114 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


SchefFel 

Gerstiicker 

Spielhagen 

Anzengruber 

Dahn 

Heyse 

Ebers 

Kirschner,  Lola 

Swedish  : 
Rydberg 
JBremer,  Frederika 

Danish  : 

Blicher 
Drachmann 

N0RWEGL\N  : 

Bjornson 
Lie 

Kielland 
Hungarian: 
Jokai 
Eotvos 

Russian  : 

Gontcharoffi 

Pisemski 

Gogol 

TurgeniefF 

Dostoyevski 

Tolstoy 

Korolenko 

Gorky 

TchekhofF 
Polish  : 

Kraszcwski 

Sicnkiewicz 

Orzcszkowa 

Defoe  began  the  line  of  great  Eng- 
lish novelists  with  what  is  still  the 
greatest  story  of  adventure  in  our 
literature.  The  realistic  novel  was 
carried  to  a  high  degree  of  perfection 
by   Fielding.     Manners   were   acutely 


studied  by  a  succession  of  women 
writers,  who  bridged  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  centuries.  Barren 
practically  of  the  drama,  the  latter 
century  found  expression  in  the  novel 
to  as  fully  great  an  extent  as  in  lyric 
poetry.  See: 
English  : 

Belin,  Afra 

Defoe 

Sterne 

Smollet 

Fielding 

Richardson 

Inchbald,  Elizabeth  Simpson 

Godwin 

Buraey,  Frances 

Radcliffe,  Ann 

Edgeworth,  Maria 

Scott 

Austen,  Jane 

Porter,  Jane 

Peacock,  Thomas  Love 

Lover,  Samuel 

Borrow 

Lever,  Charles 

Bulwer-Lytton 

Gaskell,  Elizabeth 

James,  G.  P.  R. 

Thackeray 

Marryat,  Frederick 

Dickens 

Reade 

Trollope 

Kingslcy,  Charles 

P^liot,  George 

Bronte,   (Charlotte,  Emily,  Anne) 

Collins,  Wilkie 

Blackmore 

Oliphant,  iNIargaret 

Meredith,  George 

Morris,  William 

Du  Maurier 

Black,  William 


* 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


115 


Hardy,  Thomas 
Stevenson,  Robert  Louis 
Russell,  W.  C. 
Ward,  Mrs.   Humphry 
Moore,  George 
Hawkins,  Anthony  Hope 
Kipling,  Rudyard 
Conrad,  Joseph 
Gissing,  George 
Hewlett,  Maurice 
Quiller-Couch,  A.  T. 
Wells,  H.  G. 

Fiction  has  been  more  successfully 
cultivated  in  America  than  any  other 
form  of  letters.  The  nineteenth  cen- 
tury produced  in  that  realm  a  master 
romancer,  Cooper,  two  master  short- 
story  writers,  Hawthorne  and  Poe,  and 
at  least  two  talented  exponents  of 
modern  realism,  James  and  Howells,  of 
whom  the  latter  has  depicted  national 
character  with  remarkable  success. 
See: 

Brown,  Charles  Brockden 

Cooper 

Poe 

Hawthorne 

Hale,  E.  E. 

Howells 

Harte,  Bret 

James,  Henry 

Cable,  George  Washington 

Fawcett,  Edgar 

Grant,  Robert 

Jackson,  H.  H. 

Melville,  Herman 

Tourgee,  A.  W. 

Wilkins,  Mary 

Allen  James  Lane 

Page,  Thomas  Nelson 

Garland,  Hamlin 

Stockton,  Frank  R. 

Norris,  Frank 


5.  Criticism  and  Essay. 

1.  The  principles  underlying  artistic 
endeavor  have  been  discussed  since 
early  Greek  times,  and  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes,  the  universal  laws  of 
artistic  expression,  which  have  always 
been  accepted,  and  the  minor  theories, 
more  limited  in  scope  and  applying 
generally  to  individual  arts,  which 
never  have  been  accepted  by  all,  and 
never  will  be.  Plato  first  studied  in  a 
thorough  manner  the  relations  of  art 
to  reahty.  Aristotle's  Poetics  laid 
down  the  principles  that  have  under- 
gone no  essential  change  since  his  time. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  blending  of  the 
classic  spirit  with  the  Teutonic,  and  the 
subsequent  rise  of  chivalry  and  ro- 
mance, produced  differences  of  opinion 
regarding  subject,  scope,  and  manner 
that  are  in  full  force  at  the  present 
day.     See : 

Criticism 

Realism  and  Naturalism 

Romanticism 

Impi'essionist  School  of  Painting 

Decadents 

Symbolists 

2.  Criticism  in  the  beginning  found 
expression  in  both  prose  and  verse ;  the 
modern  tendency  has  been  decidedly 
towards  prose,  though  there  is  not 
wanting  a  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism 
to  continue  the  succession  from  Hor- 
ace's Ars  Poetica.  The  usual  form, 
then,  in  which  criticism  at  present  finds 
expression  is  the  Essay.  See:  Essay, 
and  for  the  writers: 

Greek: 
Plato 
Aristotle 
Plutarch 
Longinus 


116 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


Latin  : 

Cicero 

Horace 

Seneca  the  Elder 

Varro 

Pliny 

Quintilian 
Feench : 

Montaigne 

Saint-Evremond 

Corneille 

Boileau 

Voltaire 

Diderot 

Bayle 

Taine 

Cousin 

Lamartine 

Sainte-Beuve 

Michelet 

Sarcey 

France,  Anatole 

Faguet,  Eniile 

Brunetiere 

Lemaitre,  Jules 

Rod,  Edouard 

Italian  : 
Dante 
Boccaccio 
Poliziano 
Vida 

Scaligcr,  J.  C. 
Carducci,  (Jiosue 
De  Sanctis,  F. 
Ancona,  Alessandro  d' 
Gubcmatis,  A. 

German: 
Rouchlin 
Winc'kclmann 
Gottsched 
Herder 
Lcssing 
Schiller 


Schlegel,  Friedrich 

Grimm 

Schercr,  W. 

Menzel 

Bahr,  HciTiiann 

Nordau,  Max 

Dutch: 
Erasmus 

Danish  : 
Rafn 
Brandes 

Russian  : 

Byelinski 
PisarefF 

English  : 
Ascham 
Sidney 

Bacon,  Francis 
Drj'den 
Steele 
Addison 
Swift 
Johnson 
Pope 
Jeffrey 
Coleridge 
Wordsworth 
Lamb 
Hazlitt 
Wilson,  John 
De  Quincey 
Hunt,  J.  H.  Leigh 
Carlyle 
Ruskin 

Arnold,  Matthew 
Rossetti,  W.  M. 
Stevenson,  Robert  Louis 
Pater,  W.  ^ 

Syiiionds,  J.  A. 
Saintsbury,  George 
Stephen,  Leslie 
Birroll,  Augustine 
Arciicr,  William 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


117 


Le  Gallienne,  Richard 
Symons,  A. 
American  : 
Irving 
Emerson 
Ticknor,  G. 
Lowell 

Fuller,  Sarah  Margaret 
Griswold,  Rufus 
Curtis,  G.  W. 
Whipple 

White,  Richard  Grant 
Hutton,  Laurence 
Mabie,  Hamilton 
Winter,  William 

6-  Moralists,  Satirists,  and  Humor- 
ists. 

The  study  of  human  character  and 
conduct  has  at  all  times  received  the 
attention  of  great  minds,  and  wliat 
may  be  called  ethical  literature  forms 
a  very  important  part  of  the  literature 
of  the  world.  Near  to  constructive 
moralists,  like  Epictetus  or  Carlyle, 
stands  the  satirist,  whose  mission  it  is 
to  combat  the  evil  of  degenerate  times. 
The  contemplation  of  the  petty  faults 
and  incongruities  of  human  character 
and  action,  so  portrayed  as  to  arouse 
laughter  without  arousing  deep  emo- 
tion of  any  kind,  has  always  been  a 
universal  source  of  amusement.  See: 
Greek  and  Roman: 

Aristophanes 

Lucian 

Epictetus 

Ennius 

Lucilius 

Horace 

Juvenal 

Martial 

Persius 

Lucan 


Tacitus 

Petronius 

Aurelius,  Marcus 

Boethius 
French : 

Rabelais 

Menippee 

La  Bruyere 

La  Rochefoucauld 

Pascal 

Lcsage 

Voltaire 

Chamfort,  S.  R. 
Italian  : 

Jacopone  da  Todi 

Aretino 
Spanish  : 

Quevedo  y  Villegas 

German : 

Fischart,  Johannes 

Brant 

Hutten,  Ulrich  von 

EpistolfE  Obscurorum  Virorum 

Grimmelshausen 

Rabener 

Lichtenberg 

Wieland 

Tieck 

Richter,  Johann  Paul 

Reuter,  Fritz 

Dutch  : 

Erasmus 

Marnix 
RussuN : 

Kantemir 

Shtchedrin 

Nekrasoff 

English  : 

Langland  (Piers  Plowman) 

Skelton 
Bunyan 
Butler 


118 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


Dryden 

Pope 

Swift 

Junius,  Letters  of 

Arbuthnot 

Byron 

Carlyle 

Smith,   Sydney 

Thackeray 

Dickens 

Calverle}' 

Gilbert,  W.  S. 

Mallock,  W.  H. 

Lear,  Edward 

Jerome,  Jerome  K. 

Guthrie,  T.  A. 

Scotch: 

Dunbar 

Barclay 
American: 

Ward,  Nathaniel 

Franklin 

Irving 

Lowell 

Holmes 

Smith,  Seba 

Clemens 

Leland,  C.  G. 

Locke,  D.  R. 

Browne,  C.  F. 

Bunncr,  H.  C. 

Shaw,  H.  W. 

Stockton,  F.  R. 

Nye,  E.  W. 

Dunne,  Finlcy  Peter 

7.  Oratory. 

The  art  'of  eloquent  persuasion  is 
found  among  all  primitive  peoples 
where  social  bonds  have  become  of  some 
importance.  Oratory  attains  its  full- 
est development  in  the  Greek  democra- 
cies, where  the  citizen  was  called  upon 
to  take  so  considerable  a  sliare  in  the 


public  life.  The  political  and  juristic 
genius  of  the  Roman  was  likewise  fa- 
vorable to  the  development  of  the  art. 
Pulpit  eloquence  had  some  of  its  great- 
est masters  among  the  early  Fathers  of 
the  Church,  which  has  never  been  want- 
ing in  masterly  exponents  of  its  doc- 
trines. A  gi'eat  period  in  the  history  of 
orator}'  was  the  age  of  the  French 
Revolution,  when,  contemporaneously 
in  England  too,  a  succession  of  great 
orators  lent  lustre  to  the  reign  of 
George  III.  In  the  United  States,  the 
revolutionary  period,  and  the  period  of 
rapid  national  growth,  produced  a  bril- 
liant series  of  orators,  culminating  in 
the  classic  triad.  Clay,  Webster,  and 
Calhoun.  At  present  oratory  may  b'e 
considered  a  declining  art,  especially 
as  related  to  secular  affairs ;  and, 
though  its  power  over  the  multitude 
may  still  be  felt  in  electoral  campaigns, 
its  influence  in  legislative  bodies  has 
largely  passed  away.  See  Oratory; 
and,  for  the  great  orators  of  all 
ages: 

Greek : 
Pericles 
Gorgias 
Isocrates 
Lj'sias 
Andocides 
Isaeus 
.(Eschines 
Demosthenes 
Athanasius 
Chrysostom 
Basil  the  Great 

Roman : 

(^ato  of  Utica 
Hortensius 
Cicoro 
Ambrose 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


119 


French: 

Bossuet 

Bourdaloue 

Massillon 

Fenelon 

IMirabeau 

Barnave 

Vcrgniaud 

Guadet 

Daiiton 

Robespierre 

Royer-Collard 

Constant  de  Rebecque 

Lamartine 

Laeordaii'e 

Thiers 

Gambetta 
Italian  : 

Mazzini 
Spanish  : 

Castelar 
Hungarian  : 

Kgssuth 

English  : 

Taylor,  Jeremy 

Baxter,  Richard 

Whiteficld 

]\Iansfield 

Burke 

Pitt,  the  Elder 

Pitt,  the  Younger 

Fox,  C.  J. 

Sheridan,  R.  B. 

Erskine,  Lord 

Canning 

Bright,  John 

Gladstone 

Drunimond,  Henry 

Spurgeon,  C.  H. 

Irish  : 
Curran 
Grattan 


O'Conncll 
Emmet 

American  : 
Otis,  James 
Henry,  Patrick 
Lee,  Richard  Henry 
Ames,  Fisher 
Channing,  W.  E. 
Randolph,  John 
Wirt,  William 
Benton 
Clay 
Webster 
Calhoun 
Hayne 
Everett 
Choate,  Rufus 
Seward,  W.  H. 
Sumner,  Charles 
Stephens,  Alexander 
Beecher,  H.  W. 
Douglas,  Stephen  A. 
Evarts,  W.  M. 
Edmunds,  George 
Conkling,  Roscoe 
Ingersoll,  Robert 
Brooks,  Phillips 
Reed,  Thomas  B. 
Bryan,  William  Jennings 

8.  The  Fable. 

Probably  it  was  the  inhabitants  of 
India  who  first  ascribed  human  wisdom 
and  language  to  animals.  From  India 
the  fable  passed  westward,  and,  begin- 
ning with  the  Greek  ^sop,  we  find 
practically  the  same  scheme  and  con- 
tents in  all  European  fabulists.  See : 
India  : 

Pancatantra 
Bidpai 

Arabian  : 
Lokman 


120 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


Gkeek : 

^sop 
Latin  : 

Phaedrus 
French : 

La  Fontaine 

Perrault 

Florian 

Laboulaye 
Russian: 

KrylofF 

German : 

Hagedorn 

Gellert 

Lessing 

Grimm 
Norwegian  : 

Asbjomsen 

Moe 
Danish  : 

Andersen 

English  : 
Gay 
Harris,  Joel  Chandler 

9.  Personal  Literature. 

This  name  maj'  be  applied  to  such 
productions  as  diaries,  memoirs,  letters, 
and  "  confessions "  of  distinguished 
men  and  women,  or  men  and  women 
whose  experiences  in  life  have  been  ex- 
traordinary. Written,  it  may  be  pre- 
sumed, for  the  purpose  of  self-expres- 
sion, they  are  valuable  indexes  of 
character,  motives,  and  causes.     See: 

Letters  in  Literature 
Aurelius,  Marcus:  Meditations 
Augustine :  Confessions 
Sevigne,  Marquise  de 
Saint-Simon :  Memoires 
Rousseau :  Confessions 
Senancour :  Obermann 


Amiel 

Selden :  Table  Talk 

Pepys 

Evelyn 

Walpole,  Horace 

Chesterfield 

10.  Journalism. 

The  press,  which  must  be  regarded 
as  an  important  element  in  the  literary 
life  of  any  nation,  may  be  studied  un- 
der the  following  heads : 

Periodical    Literature 

Journalism,  College 

Newspaper 

Punch 

Figaro 

Times,  The 

Printing 
A  partial  list  of  noteworthy  names  in 
journalism  is  as  follows: 

About,  Edmond 

Blowitz,  Henri  Georges 

Bonner,  Robert 

Bowles,  Samuel 

Creelman,  James 

Curtis,  W.  E. 

Dana,  C.  A. 

Field,  Kate 

Forbes,  Archibald 

Godkin,  E.  L. 

Greeley,  Horace 

Halstead,  Murat 

Kennan,  George 

Laboucherc,  Henry 

Lemon,  Mark 

Mcdill,  Joseph 

Norman,  Henry 

Pulitzer,  Joseph 

Raymond,  H.  J. 

Rcid,  Whitelaw 

Rochefort,  Henri 

Russell,  W.  H. 

Sala,  G.  A.  H. 


LANGUAGE     AND     LITERATURE 


121 


Saltus,  Edgar 
Smalley,  G.  W. 
Stanley,  H.  M. 
Stead,  W.  T. 
Steevens,  G.  W. 
Taylor,  Bayard 
TraJll,  H.  D. 
Villicrs,  F. 
Weed,  Thurlow 
White,  Horace 
Wilkinson,  H.  S. 
Young,  J.  R. 

11.  Miscellaneous  Titles. 

Manuscript 

Manuscripts,  Illumination  of 


Papyrus 

Palimpsest 

Paleography 

Codex 

Coster 

Gutenberg 

Fust 

Elzevir 

Manutius 

Foulis 

Encyclopa?dia 

Dictionary 

Larousse 

Brockhaus 

Copyright 

Literary  Property 


(dljaplfr  a.     ®I)P  3xm  Arts 

(Arrljtterturr) 


THE  study  of  the  fine  arts  may  be  approached  from  one  of  three 
different  points  of  view.  The  first  of  these  is  the  historical,  in 
which  the  student  desires  to  obtain  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
art  of  a  nation  or  of  an  entire  period,  its  general  characteristics 
and  development.  Another  is  the  artistic,  in  which  knowledge  of 
a  particular  art  or  of  some  of  its  aspects  is  desired.  A  third  is  the  biographical, 
in  which  the  interest  centres  about  an  individual  artist.  To  meet  the  first  point 
of  view,  the  Xerc  International  Encyclopa'dia  contains  general  articles  treating 
the  architecture,  sculpture,  painting,  and  minor  arts  of  certain  nations  and  periods. 
These  general  articles  may  best  be  divided  into  two  groups :  those  treating  the  art 
of  Oriental  nations,  whose  artistic  devlopment  is  remotely  or  not  at  all  concerned 
with  the  general  European  evolution ;  and  those  dealing  with  the  great  periods  of 
artistic  development  participated  in  by  the  Occident  in  general.  This  division 
obviates  the  necessity  for  general  articles  on  the  art  of  separate  European  coun- 
tries, as,  for  instance,  French  art,  which  will  be  found  treated  under  Roman-- 
EsauE,  Gothic,  and  Renaissance  Art,  and  in  the  general  articles  Aechitec- 
TUHE,  Sculpture,  Painting.  The  artist's  point  of  view  is  represented  by 
general  articles  on  Painting,  Sculpture,  and  Architecture,  and  by  articles  on  the 
various  schools,  and  on  technical  terms  and  pi-ocesses.  The  biographical  side  is 
fully  dealt  with  in  the  lives  of  all  the  principal  artists.  The  art  museums  are 
usually  described  under  the  titles  of  the  cities  in  which  they  are  situated:  but  a 
few  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  require  separate  articles.  The  principal 
schools  of  design  are  described  in  the  general  article  upon  that  subject  and  in 
special  articles  on  the  more  Important  schools.  The  description  of  celebrated 
representations  in  painting  and  sculpture  is  usually  given  in  the  biography'  of 
the  artist  who  produced  them.  The  article  Mythology  in  Aet  gives  a  general 
treatment  of  such  representations  in  Classic  Art,  which  arc  further  treated  under 
the  names  of  the  subjects  represented,  as  Jupiter,  Hercules,  Achilles.  The 
article  Iconography  similarly  treats  Christian  Art,  and  there  are  special  articles 
on  a  number  of  important  themes  of  artistic  treatment,  such  as  Christ  in  Art  and 
Madonna. 


A,   (^nuvixi  Arttrbs 


I.  Introductory:  Assyrian  Art 

^j.j;  Jewisli  Art 

Art,  Primitive  Phoenician  Art 

/Esthetics  IMohammedan  Art 

Persian  Art 

II.  OhientalArt:  Indian  Art 

I^gyptian  Art  Chinese  Art 

Babylonian  Art  Japanese  Art 

122 


ARCHITECTURE 


123 


III.  European  Development: 

Greek  Art 
Etruria 
Roman  Art 
Christian  Art 
Byzantine  Art 
Monastic  Ai-t 
Romanesque  Art 
Lombard  Art 
Gothic  Art 
Renaissance  Art 


IV.  Art    Museums,    Societies,    and 
Schools: 

Design,  Schools  of 

Ecole  des  Beaux-Arts 

National  Academy  of  Design 

Society  of  American  Artists 

Royal  Academy  of  Arts 

Saint  Luke,  Academy  of 

British  Museum 

Louvre 

Luxembourg  Palace 

Pitti  Palace 

Uffizi 


B.   Kxt\}\XttXmt 


In  its  widest  sense,  Architecture  in- 
cludes any  kind  of  construction;  but, in 
the  New  International  Encyclopaedia, 
the  term  is  usually  restricted  to  build- 
ing which  attains  the  dignity  of  art. 
Purely  technical  and  utilitarian  phases 
of  architecture  are  treated  under 
'Building, Masonry,  and  similar  titles. 
(See  the  chapter  on  Manufactur(?fe 
and  Engineering.)  The  three  prin- 
cipal varieties  of  architecture  are  civil, 
religious,  and  military ;  and  under 
these  heads,  in  the  following  lists, 
will  be  found  their  chief  subdivisions. 
A  few  of  these  call  for  more  detailed 
treatment  of  the  component  parts, 
and  these  are  best  enumerated  below 
in  connection  with  that  style  under 
which  they  were  principally  devel- 
oped ;  as,  for  instance.  Temple 
under  Greek  Architecture,  Church 
under  Early  Christian,  Monastery 
and  Castle  under  Romanesque.  Most 
celebrated  works  of  architecture  are 
treated  in  the  articles  on  those  cities  in 
which  they  are  situated;  but  a  number 
of   buildings    of   especial   interest   are 


treated  separately,  and  in  the  following 
scheme  of  .study,  such  buildings  are 
enumerated  under  the  different  styles  of 
architecture  of  which  they  are  repre- 
sentative. For  example,  Parthenon, 
Erechtheum,  etc.,  appear  under 
Greek  Architecture,  Notre  Dame  de 
Paris  and  Westminster  Abbey  under 
Gothic. 

I.  Civil  Architecture  : 

Municipal  Architecture 

Forum 

Palace 

Fountain 

Villa 

Mausoleum 

Theatre 

Amphitheatre 

Circus 

Bath 

Town  Hall 

Arch,  Triumphal 

Aqueduct 

Bridge 

II.  Religious  Architecture: 

Temple 


124 


ARCHITECTURE 


Church 

Cathedral 

Monastery 

Orator}' 

Baptistery 

III.  Military  Architecture  : 

Acropohs 

Citadel 

Castle 

Camp 

Fortification 

IV.  Technical  Terms. 

A  large  number  of  architectural 
terms  deserve  special  treatment.  Some 
of  these,  which  are  general  in  their  ap- 
plication, are  enumerated  below,  while 
others,  the  application  of  wliich  is  re- 
stricted to  a  particular  style,  are  enu- 
merated under  that  style ;  as,  for  exam- 
ple, Mosque  under  Mohammedan. 
See: 

Arabesque 

Arcade 

Arch 

Balcony 

Balustrade 

Bay  Window 

Belfry 

Ceiling 

Colonnade 

Column 

Cupola 

Dome 

Door 

Doorway 

Fafade 

Floor 

Gateway 

Hall 

Molding 

Ornament 

Panel 


Pendentive 

Perspective 

Pilaster 

Pillar 

Porch 

Portal 

Roof 

Spire 

Tracery 

Window 

V.  Historic  Styles  axd  Biography. 

Architecture  is  tlie  most  ancient  and, 
perhaps,  the  most  important  of  the  fine 
arts.  In  most  artistic  developments, 
both  painting  and  sculpture  have  been 
subordinate  to  it.  Its  historical  treat- 
ment, therefore,  forms  an  extensive  and 
important  part  of  the  general  depart- 
ment of  architecture  in  the  Encyclo- 
paedia. A  general  historical  sketch  of  its 
development, from tiie  most  ancienttimes 
to  the  present,  is  given  in  the  article 
AcHiTECTURE.  This  should  be  supple- 
mented by  the  copious  articles  on  the 
great  historic  styles,  with  the  biograph- 
ical additions  given  in  the  following 
list.  Our  treatment  will  outline  the 
salient  features  of  the  different  styles, 
beginning  with  those  Oriental  nations 
whose  architecture  lies  remote  from  the 
European  development — such  as  China, 
India,  and  Japan.  We  then  proceed  to 
those  ancient  nations,  like  Babylonia 
and  Egypt,  which  materially  influenced 
the  Greek  architecture.  P^rom  Greek 
arcliitecturc,  is  descended  the  Roman, 
and  from  the  Roman,  the  Mediicval  and 
Renaissance  styles,  and  finally  tiic  ar- 
chitecture of  the  present  day. 

1.  India. 

The  architecture  of  India  begins  with 
the    Buddhist   style    (u.    c.    300-a.    d. 


ARCHITECTURE 


125 


700),  whose  buildings  are  of  three 
classes:  stupa  or  tope  (a  mound  en- 
closing a  relic)  ;  rock  temples  (chai- 
tyas)  ;  and  monasteries  (viharas).  The 
Neo-Brahmanic  style  (beginning  a.  d. 
700)  comprises  many  varieties,  includ- 
ing the  so-called  Jaina  and  Dravidian. 
It  developed  the  architectural  detail, 
the  over-rich  ornamentation,  the  pago- 
das and  gopuras  of  the  South.  The 
Mohammedan  architecture  of  India, 
being  little  related  to  these  styles,  is 
test  treated  under  Mohammedak  Art. 
See: 

Indian  Art 

Tope 

Vihara 

Ellora 

Vija^-anagara 

Boro  Buddor 

Elephanta 

Mohammedan  Art 

■2.  China  and  Japan. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  of 
Chinese  architecture,  which  begins  in 
the  first  century  b.  c,  after  the  advent 
of  Buddhism,  is  the  tiled  roof  of  tent- 
like form.  Others  are  the  pagoda,  the 
pail-loo  (a  monumental  gateway),  and 
elaborately  colored  surface  decoration. 
Japanese  architecture,  which  begins 
with  the  seventh  century  a.  d.,  is  even 
less  massive.  It  makes  more  of  timber 
construction,  and  spends  more  upon 
roof  effects  than  the  Chinese.     See: 

Chinese  Art 
Japanese  Art 
Pagoda 

S.  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

The  first  historic  people  to  develop 
architecture  were  the  Babylonians,  as 
early  as  b.   c.   6000.     Their  building 


material  was  brick,  and  they  were  the 
first  to  construct  vaults  and  arches. 
Their  most  important  buildings  were 
the  temples,  which  were  stepped  pyra- 
mids of  great  height,  brilliantly  col- 
ored with  glazed  tiles.  Their  city  walls 
were  of  amazing  height  and  thickness. 
Assyrian  architecture  was  derived 
from  the  Babylonian,  but  was  more  sec- 
ular in  character,  the  chief  buildings 
being  the  royal  palaces,  in  which  it  per- 
fected decorative  relief  sculpture  of  a 
high  order.     See : 

(a)  Babylonian  Art 
Babylon 

Babel,  Tower  of 
Nippur 

Erech 
Ur 

(b)  Assyrian  Art 
Nineveh 
Nimrud 
Khorsabad 
Koyunjik 

4.  Persia,  Phcenicia,  Judea. 

The  Babylonian-Assyrian  influence 
was  determinative  for  the  architecture 
of  the  Hittites,  and  for  the  utilitarian 
art  of  the  Pha?nicians,  who  built  for 
Solomon  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem. 
Ancient  Persian  architecture  shows  a 
mingling  of  Babylonian  with  Egyptian 
and  Greek  influences ;  but,  under  the 
Parthian  and  Sassanian  dynasties,  it 
reverted  to  purer  Oriental  types.     See : 

Hittites 

PhcEnician  Art 

Jewish  Art 

Temple  at  Jerusalem 

Persian  Art 

Ecbatana 

Susa 


126 


ARCHITECTURE 


Pasargadae 
Firuzabad 

5.  Egypt. 

The  architectural  monuments  of  the 
Old  Empire  (b.  c.  5000-3000),  the 
pyramids,  mastabas,  and  such  temples 
as  exist — are  works  of  building  rather 
than  art.  Egyptian  temple  architec- 
ture originated  with  the  Middle  Empire 
(b.  c.  3000-2100),  and,  after  a  disas- 
trous interruption  under  the  Shepherd 
Kings,  attained  its  highest  development 
during  the  New  Empire  (till  a.  d. 
32^).  Some,  like  Abu-Simbel,  were 
rock-cut  temples ;  others,  like  Deir-el- 
Bahri,  were  partly  constructed.  The 
Ramesseum  was  a  sepulchral  temple ; 
the  chief  structural  masterpieces  are  at 
Karnak,  Luxor,  Edfu,  and  Phila?.  Im- 
portant temples  continued  to  be  built 
under  the  Greek  (Denderah,  Philas) 
and  Roman  domination.  For  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  temples  consult  the  section 
Architecture,  under  Egyptian  Art.  It 
represents  the  first  attempt  at  a  large 
column  interior  in  architectural  his- 
tory.   See : 

Egyptian  Art 

Pyramid 

Mastaba 

Medum 

Luxor 

Thebes 

Karnak 

Edfu 

Elephantine 

Abu-Simbel 

Deir-el-Bahri 

Ramesseum 

Medinet  Habu 

Denderah 

Phite 

Beni-Hassan 


6.  Greece. 

The  Mycensean  architecture  in  Greek 
lands,  sometimes  known, as  the  ^Egean 
style,  is  described  under  Archaeology, 
and  in  the  articles  on  the  principal  sites 
of  this  culture.  From  the  main  hall  of 
the  Mycena?an  palace  was  evolved  that 
marvelous  structural  masterpiece,  the 
Greek  Temple,  the  final  type  of  which 
appears  in  the  seventh  century  b.  c. 
For  a  description  of  this  temple,  which 
is  the  central  figure  of  Greek  architec- 
ture, consult  Greek  Art.  The  origin 
and  development  of  the  two  principal 
styles  of  temple  architecture,  Doric 
and  Ionic,  are  treated  under  Architec- 
ture and  Arch.eoi.ogy.  The  earliest 
examples  of  the  Doric  are  in  Sicily  and 
Southern  Italy,  and  it  attained  perfec- 
tion during  the  fifth  century,  in  build- 
ings like  the  Parthenon  and  Theseum 
at  Athens,  and  in  the  temples  of  Pfes- 
tum.  The  Ionic  order  was  increasingly 
used  in  the  fourth  century  b.  c,  as  at 
jVIiletus  and  Ephesus,  the  Corinthian 
being  as  yet  used  for  small  monuments 
only.  The  Hellenistic  age  saw  a  great 
development  of  architecture  of  a  pri- 
vate, civil,  and  sepulchral  character, 
like  the  stoa,  propylasa,  theatre,  odeon, 
and  mausoleum. 

(a)   General  Titles: 

Cyclopjean  Architecture 

Archa'ology 

Greek  Art 

Temple 

Doric  Order 

Ionic  Order 

Corinthian  Order 

Column 

Fluting 

Entablature 

Base 


ARCHITECTURE 


127 


Pediment 

Frieze 

Cornice 

Acanthus 

Pjestuni 

Agrigentum 

Selinus 

Segesta 

Parthenon 

Theseum 

Erectheum 

Phigalia 

Miletus 

Diana,  Temple  of 

Tecs 

Magnesia 

(6)    Civil  Architecture: 
Propylaea 
Stoa 

Colonnade 
Stadium 
Theatre 
Mausoleum 
Choragic  Monument 

(c)    Biography : 
Ictinus 
Callicrates 
Mnesicles 

7.  Rome. 

For  a  general  view  of  Roman  archi- 
tecture, the  student  is  referred  to  Ro- 
man Art.  The  early  architecture  of 
Rome  is  practically  Etruscan,  and  to 
this  people  the  Romans  owe  their  knowl- 
edge of  vaulting  and  the  arch.  At  the 
close  of  the  republican  epoch,  they 
adopted  Greek  orders,  evincing  special 
preference  for  the  Corinthian,  whicli 
they  developed  into  an  independent  or- 
der, and  from  which  they  evolved  the 
so-called  composite.  These  forms  were 
decoratively  used  as  adjuncts  of  con- 


struction. The  principal  works  of  Ro- 
man architecture  were  but  great  civil 
structures,  like  the  fora,  triumphal 
arches,  amphitheatres,  therma?,  aque- 
ducts, and  the  like.  The  highest  de- 
velopment was  during  the  first  150 
years  of  the  empire,  after  which  came 
the  decline.     See: 

(a)     Etruria  (section  on  Art) 
Cloaca 
Roman  Art 
Aqueduct 
Tabularium 
Forum 

Trajan,  Forum  of 
Basilica 
Pantheon 
Theatre 
Amphitheatre 
Arch,  Triumphal 
Trajan,  Arch  of 
Titus,  Arch  of 
Constantine,  Arch  of 
Septimius  Severus,  Arch  of 
Antonine  Column 
Caracalla,  Baths  of 
Diocletian,  Baths  of 
Tivoli 
Pompeii 
Herculanffium 
Baalbek 
Palmyra 

(t))    Biography: 

Apollodorus 

8.  Early  Christian. 

Early  Christian  architecture  is  an 
adaptation  of  the  declining  Roman  to 
the  needs  of  Christian  worship.  The 
requirement  was  a  large  interior  for 
many  worshipers,  resulting  in  tlie  de- 
velopment of  the  basilical  construction, 
which  became  typical  for  church  build- 


128 


ARCHITECTURE 


ing.  The  component  parts  of  the  ba- 
silica are  discussed  in  the  articles  under 
the  heading  of  Basilical  Construction. 
The  article  Church  gives  the  general 
development  of  the  church  building. 
To  this  is  added  a  list  of  other  terms 
of  ecclesiastical  architecture. 

(a)  Basilical  Construction: 

Basilica 

Apse 

Transept 

Atrium 

Nave 

Altar 

Choir 

Confessional 

(b)  Church,  etc.: 

Church 

Catacombs 

Chancel 

Chapel 

Crypt 

Font 

Reredos 

Sacristy 

9.  Byzantine. 

In  the  eastern  half  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  the  Byzantines  developed  the 
domical  construction,  inventing  the 
pendentives  to  support  the  dome.  By- 
zantine architecture  was  also  character- 
ized by  rich  mosaic  decoration.  Its 
great  masterpieces  are  the  Church  of 
Saint  Sophia  at  Constantinople  and 
Saint  Mark's  at  Venice.  It  prevailed 
throughout  the  Eastern  Empire  until 
its  destruction  by  the  Turks ;  in  South- 
em  Italy,  Sicily, Venice, and  Ravenna; 
in  Armenia,  the  Balkans,  and  wherever 
else  the  Greek  Church  prevailed.  Rus- 
sian architecture  is  a  development  of 
the  Byzantine.     Sec: 

Byzantine  Art 


Mosaic 

Dome 

Pendentive 

Saint  Sophia 

Saint  Mark's  Church 

Anthemius    (of  Tralles) 

10.  Mohammedan. 

Coincident  with  the  Mohammedan 
conquests,  a  style  of  architecture  arose 
based  upon  the  Byzantine  and  Persian. 
Its  golden  age  began  with  the  tenth 
century,  and  the  final  types  were  at- 
tained in  the  eleventh.  The  ultimate 
type  of  the  mosque  was  built  on  the 
court-plan,  with  painted  arches,  highly 
colored  geometrical  ornament,  and  dome 
vaulting.  The  principal  schools  were 
the  ]\Ioorish  (Spain),  Egyptian,  Syr- 
ian, and  Persian,  the  influence  of  the 
last  named  extending  even  to  India.  All 
these  are  described  in  Mohammedan 
Art,  besides  which  there  are  articles 
upon  the  most  prominent  features  of 
Mohammedan  architecture.     See: 

Mohammedan  Art 

Mosque 

Minaret 

Tekiye 

Bazar 

Caravanserai 

Alhambra 

Taj  Mahal 

11.  Romanesque   (a.   d.   800-1200). 
In    Middle    and    Western    Europe, 

Early  Christian  architecture  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Romanesque,  which  was 
pre-eminently  the  art  of  the  monastic 
orders  and  of  feudalism.  Among  its 
innovations  were  the  cruciform  plan, 
the  developed  crypt,  and  the  incorpora- 
tion of  bcll-towcrs  witii  the  church 
building.     But  the  principal  achieve- 


ARCHITECTURE 


129 


ment  of  Romanosque  architecture  was 
the  perfection  of  vaulting, — the  dome 
and  tunnel  vault  in  Southern  France, 
and  the  groined  vault  in  Lombardy,  the 
Rhinelands,  Normandy,  and  England. 
It  thus  led  the  way  to  the  development 
of  the  pointed  arch  and  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. The  basis  of  the  study  of  Ro- 
manesque architecture  should  be  the 
appropriate  section  of  Romanesque 
Art.    See: 

Romanesque  Art 

Lombard  Art 

Norman  Architecture 

Vault 

Crypt 

Bell-Tower 

Castle 

Keep 

Bailey 

Tower 

Bastion 

Barbican 

Wartburg 

Monastery 

Cloister 

Chapter-house 

Dormitory 

12.   Gothic. 

Gothic  architecture  is  the  develop- 
ment of  Romanesque  groined  vaulting. 
By  means  of  the  pointed  arch,  the  most 
characteristic  feature  of  the  system,  the 
vertical  thrust  is  concentrated  in  pow- 
erful piers,  the  horizontal  on  flying 
buttresses,  permitting  light  walls  with 
enormous  glass  windows  and  an  infinite 
wealth  of  statuary  and  tracery.  Gothic 
architecture  originated  in  France  in  the 
twelfth  century,  and  there  it  also  at- 
tained its  most  perfect  development  in 
the  thirteenth,  declining  into  the  Flam- 
boyant style  of  the  fifteenth  century. 


Spanish  Gothic  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury is  second  only  to  the  French, 
though  later  debased  by  too  much  orna- 
ment. In  England,  a  peculiarly  na- 
tional style  arose,  which  should  be 
studied  under  the  headings  by  which 
three  varieties  are  usually  known. 
Early  English,  Decorated,  and 
Perpendicular.  At  its  best,  the 
German  Gothic  is  noted  for  its  beauti- 
ful tracery  and  spires.  In  Italy,  the 
Gothic  style  is  purely  decorative,  and 
it  produced  a  charming  style  of  civic 
buildings,  especially  in  Tuscany  and 
Venice.  The  basis  of  study  should  be 
the  article,  Gothic  Architecture, 
supplemented  by  the  articles  on  special 
churches,  and  the  descriptions  in  the 
articles  on  the  cities,  a  few  of  which 
are  appended.     See: 

(a)  Gothic  Architecture 
Vault 

Flamboyant 
Eai'ly  English 
Decorated  Style 
Perpendicular 
Fan-Tracery  A'aulting 
Notre  Dame  de  Paris 
Sainte  Chapelle 
Westminster  Abbey 
Santa  Croce 

(b)  Cathedral  Cities: 

Rheims 

Amiens 

Burgos 

Lincoln 

Salisbury 

York 

Canterbury 

Winchester 

Cologne 

Strassburg 

Nuremburg 


130 


ARCHITECTURE 


Freiburg 

Milan 

Florence 

Siena 

Orvieto 

(c)    Biography : 

Montreuil,  Pierre  de 

William  of  Wykeham 

Erwin 

Arnolf  o  di  Cambio 

13.  Renaissance., 

(a)  Italy. 

Renaissance  architecture  is  the 
adaptation  of  classical  forms,  as  they 
sursivcd  in  Roman  remains,  to  the 
architectural  needs  of  the  day.  The 
Early  Renaissance  (fifteenth  century) 
originated  in  the  works  of  Brunelleschi 
at  Florence,  whence  it  was  introduced 
into  the  rest  of  Italy.  Its  work  was 
decorative  in  character,  the  construc- 
tive side  being  rather  developed  by  the 
Roman  school,  headed  by  Bramante. 
The  tendency  was  increasingly  towards 
the  formal  classicism  evinced  in  the 
works  of  Palladio  and  Yignola.  As  a 
reaction,  came  the  freer  but  exagger- 
ated Barocco  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries.  The  basis  of 
study  should  be  the  section  Architec- 
ture, under  Renaissance  Art. 

(i)   Prominent  Buildings: 
Certosa 
Doge's  Palace 
Pitti  Palace 
Lante  Villa 
Giulia  Villa 
Saint  Peter's  Church 

(ii)   Biograjihy: 

Brunelleschi,  Filippo 
Michclozzi,  Michelozzo 


Alberti,  Leone  Battista 
Giuliano  da  Majano 
Laurana,  Luciano  da 
Sangallo 

Bramante,  Donato  d'Agnolo 
Peruzzi,  Baldassare 
Sansovino,  Jacopo 
Michelangelo 

Vignola,  Giacomo  Barozzo  da 
'    Palladio,  Andrea 
Serlio,  Sebastiano 
Scamozzi,  Vincenzo 
Fontana,  Domenico 
Maderna,  Carlo 
Bernini,  Giovanni  Lorenzo 
Borromini,  Francesco 
Ammanati,  Bartolommeo 
Longhena,  Baldassare 

(b)  Other  Countries. 

Outside  of  Italy,  the  most  important 
development  of  Renaissance  architec- 
ture was  the  French.  Its  most  original 
type  was  the  medi.-eval  castle  trans- 
formed into  the  palace  of  the  Renais- 
sance. There  was  constant  influence 
from  Italy,  but  the  later  French  Ba- 
rocco is  superior  to  the  Italian.  In 
Germany,  the  Gothic  elements  survived 
late,  and  materially  influenced  the  in- 
coming Renaissance.  A  similar  devel- 
opment occurred  in  other  European 
countries.  Spain  made  use  of  much 
elaborate  decorative  detail.  The  Ren- 
aissance appeared  latest  of  all  in  Eng- 
land in  the  seventeenth  century.  A 
kind  of  Palladian  High  Renaissance, 
adopted  by  Inigo  Jones,  and  developed 
by  Wren,  retained  a  purifying  influ- 
ence during  the  eighteenth  century,  un- 
til the  advent  of  classic  revival. 

(i)  France: 
Palace 
Chambiges,  Martin 


ARCHITECTURE 


131 


BuUant,  Jean 

De  I'Ormc,  Philibert 

Lescot,  Pierre 

Brosse,  Salomon  de 

Mansart 

Fontainebleau 

Louvre 

Tuileries 

Luxembourg  Palace 

(ii)   Great  Britain: 
Jones,  Inigo 
Wren,  Sir  Christopher 
Van  Brugh,  Sir  John 
Hawksmoor,  Nicholas 
Chambers,  Sir  William 
Nash,  Sir  John 
Dance,  George 
Saint  Paul's  Cathedral 
Whitehall 

14.  Nineteenth  Century. 

The  reaction  against  the  exagger- 
ated styles  of  the  eighteenth  century 
■was  an  imitation  of  classical  forms.  In 
France,  Roman  forms  were  predomi- 
nant in  the  great  structures  of  the  Re- 
public and  first  Empire;  but,  in  Eng- 
land and  Germany,  Greek  forms  were 
more  closely  followed.  About  1830, 
came  the  Gothic  revival,  which  attained 
especial  development  in  England,  in 
such  buildings  as  the  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment and  numberless  churches.  The 
present  tendency  is  towards  Renais- 
sance forms  and  greater  freedom  from 
tradition. 

The  tasteful  colonial  architecture  of 
the  United  States  followed  English 
models,  but  the  early  republic  adopted 
the  classic  revival  (Capitol).  The 
period  of  the  Civil  War  (till  1870) 
was  singularly  unfruitful ;  but  between 
1870  and  1880  there  was  a  revival  of 
the    artistic    spirit.     The    problem    of 


the  artistic  treatment  of  the  skyscraper 
with  the  steel-frame  construction  is  as 
yet  unsolved ;  but  constant  improvement 
is  being  made.  The  basis  of  study 
should  be  the  section  on  the  Nineteenth. 
Century. 

(a)   France: 

Soufflot,  Jacques  Germain 
Percier,  Charles 
Fontaine,  P.  F.  L. 
Viollet-le-Duc 
Visconti,  L.  T.  J. 
Gamier,  J.  L.  C. 

(6)   Germany  and  Austria: 
Gartner,  Friedrich  von 
Schinkel,  Karl  Friedrich 
Klenze,  Leo  von 
Hansen,  Thcophilus  von 
Semper,  Gottfried 

(c)  Great  Britain: 

Soane,  Sir  John 
Smirkc,  Sir  Robert 
Pugin,  Augustus 
Pugin,  Augustus  N.  M. 
Wyatt,  Sir  Jlatthew  D. 
Fergusson,  James 
Scott,  Sir  George  Gilbert 
Street,  George  Edmund 
Barry,  Sir  Charles 
Waterhouse,  Alfred 
Paxton,  Sir  Joseph 
Parliament,  Houses  of 

(d)  United  States : 

Latrobe,  Benjamin  Henry 
Bulfinch,  Charles 
Walter,  Thomas  Ustick 
Renwick,  James 
Upjohn,  Richard 
Hunt,  Richard  IMorris 
Richardson,  H.  H. 
jNlcKim,  Charles  F. 


Qlljapter   in.    ®I)P  Jtttp  Arts 

(^rulpturp  ani»  fainting) 


(Read   general   introduction   at   the  opening  of  preceding  chapter.) 


v4,   g>rul^tur? 


The  stud}-  of  sculpture  centres  about 
the  general  article  on  that  subject.  In 
this  article  will  be  found  sections  on 
the  technical  processes  and  materials, 
especially  tlie  modern,  and  on  the  dif- 
ferent forms  of  sculpture,  and  a  sketch 
of  the  history'  of  sculpture,  containing 
a  description  of  the  characteristics  and 
the  development  of  the  different  schools, 
as  revealed  in  their  principal  artists. 
The  study  of  the  technical  forms  and 
processes  of  sculpture  should  be  supple- 
mented by  the  special  articles  enumer- 
ated below ;  that  of  the  history  by  tliosc 
on  the  different  schools  and  epochs  of 
art,  and  above  all  by  the  biographies 
of  the  artists,  some  of  which  are 
enumerated  in  the  following  para- 
graphs. 

I.  Branches     and     Technique     of 

Sculpture. 
Carving 
Chasing 
Founding 
Bell 

Relief  Sculpture 
Bronze 

Chryselephantine 
Goldsmith's  Work 
Terra  Cotta 
Ivory 

Metal  Work 
Wood-carving 
Stucco 

II.  Greek  and  Roman  ScuLrxuRE. 
The  sculpture  of  Oriental  countries 

is  decorative  in  character,  and  therefore 


best  considered  in  connection  with  their 
architecture,  under  the  titles  of  the 
division  Oriental  Art,  in  the  introduc- 
tory section  of  the  preceding  chapter. 
Among  the  Greeks,  sculpture  first  at- 
tained the  dignity  of  an  independent 
art,  and  achieved  the  highest  perfection 
in  the  world's  history.  The  study  of 
the  separate  epochs  of  Greek  sculpture 
should  be  based  upon  the  articles 
Arch.eology  and  Greek  Art.  Its 
rude  beginnings  date  from  the  seventh 
century  b.  c.  The  emancipation  was 
gradual,  but,  by  the  end  of  the  archaic 
period  (b.  c.  480),  the  sculptor  had 
attained  freedom,  and  could  create 
heads  of  the  highest  charm.  The 
Attic  period  (480-323),  during  which 
the  chief  art  centre  was  at  Athens,  wit- 
nessed the  highest  development  of 
Greek  art.  It  is  ushered  in  by  a  period 
of  transition  (till  about  4.50),  in  which 
archaic  reminiscences  are  still  in  evi- 
dence; but  great  progress  was  made 
towards  complete  mastery  of  technique. 
The  last  half  of  the  fifth  century,  the 
age  of  Phidias,  is  the  golden  age  of 
Greek  art.  The  greatest  technical 
knowledge  was  subordinated  to  idealism 
and  self  restraint,  and  to  the  utmost 
nobility  of  concc])tion.  'J^lie  age  of 
Praxiteles  and  Scopas,  though  still 
ideal,  was  more  realistic  and  interested 
in  individual  traits  and  features.  It 
succeeded  especially  well  in  portraiture, 
and  attained  the  highest  mastery  of 
t('chni(iue.  During  the  Hellenistic  age 
(323-1 4G),  the  centres  of  art   passed 


J  32 


SCULPTURE     AND     PAINTING 


133 


from  Greece  to  Asia  and  Egypt,  to 
Pergamus,  Rhodes,  and  Alexandria. 
Art  came  more  into  the  service  of  indi- 
viduals, and,  notwithstanding  the  high- 
est technical  skill,  it  sought  rather  sen- 
sational or  trivial  subjects.  Roman 
sculpture  is,  for  the  most  part,  copied 
from  the  Greek,  and  shows  little  origi- 
nality except  in  a  fine  realistic  rendition 
of  portraiture,  and  in  pictorial  relief- 
sculpture.     See : 

1.  The  Archaic  Period: 
Archeology 
Greek  Art 
Antenor 

9..  The  Attic  Period: 

/Eginetan  Sculptures 

Calamis 

Pythagoras  of  Rhcgium 

Myron 

Discobolus 

Phidias 

Elgin  ]\Iarbles 

Polyclitus 

Agoracrltus 

Cresilas 

Pfeonius 

Cephisodotus 

Praxiteles 

Demetrius 

Scopas 

Mausoleum 

Marsyas 

3.  The  Hellenistic  Period: 

Lysippus 
Pergamon 
Apollo  Belvidere 
Venus  of  Milo 
Laocoon 

4.  The  Roman  Sculpture: 

Section    Sculpture    under    Roman 
Art 
Venus  of  Medici 


III.  Medleval  Sculpture. 

The  decorative  sculpture  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  can  best  be  studied  in  connec- 
tion with  the  architecture  of  the  period, 
under  the  titles  of  the  medi.x'val  epochs 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  chapter. 
The  history  of  modern  sculpture  be- 
gins with  the  Italian  revival  of  the  thir- 
teenth century.  Niccola  Pisano  found 
his  models  in  the  antique,  but  his  son 
Giovanni  reverted  to  the  Gothic,  and 
this  naturalistic,  dramatic  style  pre- 
vailed in  Italy.  The  Pisan  School  was 
the  mother  of  those  of  Florence  and 
Siena.  The  former  was  superior  in 
technique  and  composition,  the  latter 
was  rather  picturesque  and  narrative 
in  character.  During  the  entire  Mid- 
dle Ages,  and  to  some  extent  during 
the  Renaissance,  the  usages  of  Church 
worship  furnished  abundant  oppor- 
tunity for  the  sculptor's  art.     Sue : 

1.  First     Revival     in     Italy     (under 

Sculpture) 

Christian  Art 
Byzantine  Art 
Romanesque  Art 
Gothic  Art 
Antelami,  Benedetto 
Pisano,  Niccola 
Pisano,  Giovanni 
Arnolfo  di  Cambio 
Andrea  di  Ugolino 
Orcagna,  Andrea 

2.  Ecclesiastical  Sculpture: 

Altar 

Pulpit 

Ambo 

Cross 

Reliquary 

Chalice 

Tomb 


134 


SCULPTURE     AND     PAINTING 


IV.  The  Renaissance. 

The  Renaissance  opened  a  new  world 
in  sculpture.  The  sources  of  inspira- 
tion were  the  study  of  nature  and  of 
the  antique,  as  it  survived  in  ancient 
statues.  The  chief  characteristic  of 
the  Early  Renaissance  is  a  healthy 
naturalism.  It  attained  a  high  per- 
fection, in  relief  as  in  statuary,  and 
excelled  equally  in  hronzc,  marble,  and 
terra  cotta.  The  centre  of  the  art  was 
Florence,  and  the  dominant  figure  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  although  one 
amid  a  brilliant  array  of  artists  was 
Donatello.  The  school  of  Siena  was 
more  sentimental  in  feeling  and  elabor- 
ate in  decoration ;  those  of  Lombardy 
and  Venice  were  luxuriant  in  decora- 
tion, the  former  being  more  vigorous 
in  form.  The  High  Renaissance  in 
Italy  is  characterized  by  a  deeper  study 
of  the  antique  and  a  more  universal 
style ;  but  these  qualities  afterward  de- 
generated into  a  mannered  imitation 
of  the  great  masters.  Florence  again 
produced  the  greatest  masters,  notably 
Michelangelo,  whose  art  dominated 
the  following  two  centuries. 

The  sculpture  of  France  in  the  fif- 
teenth century  was  at  first  influenced 
by  that  of  Flanders,  but  the  native 
style  soon  became  transformed  by  Ital- 
ian grace  and  beauty.  Even  the 
Baroque  of  the  seventeenth  century  was 
somewhat  restrained  by  a  certain 
national  grace.  In  the  eighteenth, 
exaggerated  form  gave  place  to  more 
delicate  treatment,  and  a  fine,  healthy 
realism  ultimately  prevailed.  In  Ger- 
many, Gothic  forms  lingered  through- 
out the  fifteenth  century,  and,  when 
during  the  sixteenth,  the  Italian  influ- 
ence arrived,  it  was  less  important  than 
in  other  countries.     It  was  confined  to 


the  South;  in  the  North,  Netherland- 
ish influence  pi'evailed.  A  native  natu- 
ralistic art  dominated  the  Netherlands 
during  the  fifteenth  century,  but,  in  the 
seventeenth,  the  Italian  Baroque  en- 
tered, and,  in  the  eighteenth,  sculpture 
declined.  A  similar  development  oc- 
curred in  Spain,  save  that  there  was  a 
realistic  reaction  in  the  seventeenth 
century.  England  imported  her  sculp- 
tors from  the  Netherlands  and  from 
Ital}'.  See  Section  The  Renaissance, 
under  Sculpture. 

1.  Italy: 

(fl)   Florence: 

Ghibcrti,  Lorenzo 

Donatello 

Michclozzi 

Robbia,  Luca  della 

Vcrrocchio,  Andrea  del 

Pollaiuolo,  Antonio 

Desiderio  da  Settignano 

Benedetto  da  Maiano 

Mino  da  Fiesole 

Sansovino,  Andrea 

Torrigiano,   Piet'-o 

Michelangelo 

Cellini,  Benvonuto 

Bandlnelli,  Baccio 

Ammanati,   Bartolommeo 
{b)  Other  Cities: 

Jaco])o  della  Qnercia 

Mazzoni,  Guido 

Solari,  Cristoforo 

I^ombardi,  Pietro 

Sansovino,  Jacoj)o 

Bernini,  Giovanni  Lorenzo 

Algardi,  Alessandro 

2.  France: 

Goujon,  Jean 
Pilon,  Germain 
Co^'sevox,   Antoine 
Bouchardon,  Edme 


SCULPTURE     AND     PAINTING 


135 


Puget,  Pierre 
Ginardon,  Fi'anfois 
Pajou,   Augustin 
Houdon,  Jean  Antoine 

8.  Germany: 

Wohlgemuth,  Michel 
Stoss,  Veit 
Vischer,  Peter 
Riemenschncider,  Tilman 
Schliiter,  Andreas 
Donner,  Raphael 

4.  Other  European  Countries: 
Sluter,  Claux 
Duquesnoy,  Fran9ois 
Quellinus,  Artus 
Montanes,  Martinez 
Cano,  Alonzo 
Gibbons,  Grinling 

V.  Modern  Sculpture. 

The  reaction  upon  the  extrava- 
gances of  Baroque  sculpture,  at  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century,  took 
the  form  of  a  return  to  classic  simplic- 
ity, and  the  antique  was  imitated  more 
closely  than  ever  before.  In  France, 
this  classicism  was  followed  by  a 
Romantic  tendency,  corresponding  to 
a  similar  movement  in  painting,  and  by 
a  more  important  naturalistic  reaction. 
In  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  classicism  and  naturalism  ran 
parallel,  with  an  increasing  influence  of 
the  latter,  which  now  prevails.  Eng- 
land had  a  similar  classical  period,  and 
a  subsequent  transition  to  naturalism ; 
but  since  1870,  a  great  change,  both  in 
conception  and  treatment,  has  come 
over  English  sculpture  through  the  ef- 
fort of  great  English  painters  and  the 
French  influence.  The  German  reac- 
tion against  classicism  resulted  in  the 
historical  school  of  Berlin,  whose  work 
tended  toward  naturalism,  and  in  the 


romantic  school  of  Munich;  not  until 
the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century  did 
naturalism  prevail.  In  other  Euro- 
pean countries,  the  development  has 
been  similar  to  that  general  evolution 
described  above.  After  some  ineffec- 
tual early  attempts,  America  also  liad 
its  classical  school,  with  a  number  of 
important  artists.  Since  the  last 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
tendency  has  been  entirely  naturalistic, 
and  an  array  of  talent  has  appeared 
which  compares  favorably  with  that  of 
any  other  country.     See : 

1.  France: 

Pradier,  James 
Preault,  Auguste 
Rude,  Fran9ois 
Barye,  Antoine  Louis 
Cain,  Auguste  Nicolas 
Bartholdi,  Frederic 
Carpeaux,  Jean  Baptiste 
Fremiet,  Emmanuel 
Dalou,  Jules 
Rodin,  Auguste 
Gilbert,  F.  A.  G. 

2.  England: 

Flaxman,  John 
Westmacott,  Richard 
Gibson,  John 
Stevens,  Alfred 
Foley,  John  Henry 
Woolner,  Thomas 
Watts,  George  Frederick 
Thornycroft,  Hamo 
Ford,  Edward  Onslow 

3.  Germany: 

Dannecker,  Johann  Heinrich 
Schadow,  Johann  Gottfried 
Ranch,  Christian 
Tieck,  Friedrich 
Drake,  Friedrich 
Hahnel,  Ernst 


136 


SCULPTURE     AND     PAINTING 


Rietschel,  Ernst 
Schilling,  Johannes 
Schwanthalcr,  Ludwig 
Begas,  Reinhold 
Stuck,  Franz 
Klinger,  Max 
Zumbusch,  Kaspar 
Tilgner,  Viktor 
Strasser,  Arthur 

4.  Other  European  Countries: 

Canova,  Antonio 
Tenerani,  Pietro 
Marchcsi,  Pompeo 
Dupre,  Giovanni 
Sergei,  Johan  Tobias 
Thorwaklsen,   Bertel 
Sinding,  Stefan 

5.  United  States: 

Greenough,  Horatio 
Powers,  Hiram 


Rusk,  Wilham 
Crawford,  Thomas 
Palmer,  Erastus 
Story,  William  Wetmore 
Rogers,  Randolph 
Rogers,  John 
Rinehart,  William  Henry 
Hosmer,  Harriet 
Brown,  Henry  Kirke 
Ward,  J.  Q.  A. 
Keyser,  Ephraim 
Warner,  Olin  Levi 
Saint  Gaudens,  Augustus 
French,  Daniel  Chester 
Macmonnies,  Frederick 
Niehaus,  Charles  Henry 
Partridge,  William  Ordway 
Bartlett,  Paul 
Roberts,  Howard 
Barnard,  George  Grey 


B.   JPatutturj 


A  series  of  special  articles  treats  the 
technical  side  of  painting,  the  different 
varieties,  the  painter's  implements,  and 
the  qualities  by  which  a  picture  should 
be  judged.  The  history  of  the  dif- 
ferent schools  is  comprehensively  de- 
scribed under  Painting.  This  article 
should  form  the  basis  of  the  study  of 
any  given  school ;  it  should,  however, 
be  supplemented  by  the  articles  on 
separate  schools  and  the  biographies  of 
the  artists,  of  which  only  the  principal 
arc  contained  in  the  following  lists. 
The  technique  and  history  of  the  analo- 
gous arts  of  mosaic,  glass  painting, 
and  decoration  are  treated  at  length. 
I.  Technique  and  Allied  Arts. 
1.  Technical  Processes: 

Fresco 

Tempera 


Water-Color  Painting 

Encaustic  Painting 

Stereochromy 

Pastel 

Genre  Painting 

Portraiture 

Landscape 

Still  Life 

Canvas 

Easel 

Jlahlstick 

Ground 

Painter's  Colors 

Drawing 

Line 

Perspective 

Chiaroscuro 

Color 

Composition 

Proportion 


SCULPTURE     AND     PAINTING 


137 


2.  Analogous  Arts: 

Mosaic 
Stained  Glass 
Decorative  Art 
Sgraffito 

II.  Greek  Painting. 

The  decorative  painting  of  Oriental 
countries  is  treated  under  the  different 
titles  of  the  subdivision  Oriental  Art, 
in  the  introductory  section  of  the  pre- 
ceding chapter.  Greek  painting  was 
the  first  to  rise  to  the  dignity  of  an 
independent  art.  The  transition  from 
the  painting  of  the  old  IMycenaean 
decorations,  showing  considerable  tech- 
nical skill  and  a  high  power  of  inven- 
tion, to  that  of  the  fifth  century  b.  c. 
can  be  studied  only  in  vase-painting 
(see  Vase).  In  the  fifth  and  fourth 
centuries  b.  c,  Greek  painting  at- 
tained its  highest  development.  The 
older  Attic  School,  with  Polygnotus  as 
its  founder  and  Athens  as  a  centre, 
brought  the  art  to  a  high  state  of  devel- 
opment in  the  years  following  the  Per- 
sian wars.  Its  decorative  work  was 
practically  great,  colored,  outline 
drawings,  noble  in  composition  and 
expression.  Perspective  and  shading 
were  discovered  by  Agatharchus  of 
Samos,  a  scene  painter,  and  applied  to 
panel-painting  by  Apollodorus  of 
Athens.  In  the  later  fifth  century, 
flourished  the  Ionian  School  of  Zeuxis 
and  Parrhasius,  which  substituted 
realism  for  the  old  idealism  and  excelled 
in  delicate  drawing  and  chiaroscuro. 
In  the  early  fourth  century,  the  centre 
of  painting  shifted  to  Sicyon,  where 
systematic  drawing  and  chiaroscuro 
were  further  developed,and  the  process 
of  encaustic  painting  was  invented. 
The  Theban-Attic  School  (second  half 


of  the  fourth  century)  was  devoted  to 
impassioned  subjects,  like  battle  pieces, 
and  even  to  genre,  and  the  highest 
technical  perfection  was  achieved  by 
the  younger  Ionian  School  in  the  per- 
sons of  Apelles  and  Protogenes.  In 
the  Hellenistic  age,  painting  increased 
the  range  of  its  expression,  including 
even  the  landscape,  but  it  declined  in 
all  the  artistic  qualities.  The  decora- 
tive and  less  important  painting  of  the 
Roman  epoch  is  treated  under  Roman 
Art.     See: 

1.  General  References: 

Section  Ancient  Painting  under 
Painting 

Greek  Art 
Roman  Art 
Vase 

2.  Greek  Painters : 

Polygnotus 

Micon 

Agatharchus 

Apollodorus 

Zeuxis 

Parrhasius 

Pamphilus 

Pausias 

Apelles 

Protogenes 

III.  ]\Iedleval  Period. 

The  origins  of  Mediaeval  painting 
were  conditioned  by  the  Mosaic  style, 
as  it  prevailed  in  Early  Christian  and 
Byzantine  art.  Its  growth  was  de- 
pendent upon  the  development  of  archi- 
tecture in  Church  worship,  and  it  con- 
sequently remained  decorative.  At 
the  end  of  the  Gothic  period,  the  eman- 
cipation of  painting  began  in   Italy, 


138 


SCULPTURE     AND     PAINTING 


and  individual  artists  arose.  At  Flor- 
ence and  Siena,  there  were  important 
schools  whose  teclinical  knowledge  and 
achievements  made  possible  the  Renais- 
sance.    See : 

Mosaic 

Christian  Art 

Byzantine  Art 

Romanesque  Art 

Gotliic  Art 

Florentine  School  of  Painting 

Sienese  School  of  Painting 

Cimabue 

Giotto 

Gaddi,  Taddeo 

Orcagna,  Andrea 

Aretino,  Spinello 

Duccio  di  Boninsegna 

Martini,  Simone 

Lorenzetti 

Angclico,  Fra 

Gentile  da  Fabriano 

IV.  The  Renaissance. 

The  Renaissance  was  a  return  to  na- 
ture rather  tlian  to  antique  art,  al- 
though the  antique  exercised  a  marked 
influence  in  Italy,  where  Renaissance 
art  attained  its  highest  development 
and  whence  its  influence  radiated 
throughout  Europe.  The  Florentine 
Scliool  produced  tlie  greatest  number  of 
important  artists,  achieving  highest  re- 
sults in  every  quality  of  painting  but 
color,  in  wliich  tlie  Venetians  excelled, 
as  did  the  Umbrians  in  religious  senti- 
ment. In  Nortliem  Europe,  tlie  Renais- 
sance, entirely  naturalistic  in  cliarac- 
ter,  first  appeared  in  Flanders,  whence 
its  influence  extended  to  TTollaiid  and 
Germany.  Later,  the  Italian  influence 
transformed  for  the  worse  the  art  of 
the  Netherlands,  but  aided  to  produce  a 
national  school  in  Germany.     See: 


lta]^J. 

(a)  General  Titles : 
Renaissance  Art 

Section   The  Renaissance  under 

Painting 
Florentine  School  of  Painting 
Umbrian  School  of  Painting 
Bolognese  School  of  Painting 
Ferrarese  School  of  Painting 
Venetian  School  of  Painting 

(b)  Biography: 
(i)   Florence: 

Masilino  da  Panicale 
Masaccio 

Lippi,  Filippo  and  Filippino 
Botticelli,  Alessandro 
Gozzoli,  Benozzo 
Pollaiuolo,  Antonio 
Verrocchio,  Andrea 
Ghirlandajo,  Domenico 
Vinci,  Leonardo  da 
Michelangelo 
Bartolommeo,  Fra 
Sarto,  Andrea  del 

(ii)   Umbria: 

Francesca,  Piero  della 
Forli,  ]\Ielozzo  da 
Santi,  Giovanni 
Signorelli,  Luca 
Perugino,  Pietro 
Pinturicchio 
Rapliael 

(iii)   Nortliern  Italy: 
Squarcione,  Francesco 
IVIantcgna,  Andrea 
Costa,  Lorenzo 
Francia,  Francesco 
Viti,  Timoteo 
Dosso  Uossi 
Garofalo 
Corrcggio 
Sodoma 


SCULPTURE     AND     PAINTING 


139 


Sol.'iri,  Andrea 

Luini,  Bernardino 

Ferrari,  Gaudenzio 
(iv)   Venice: 

Crivclli,  Carlo 

Antonello  da  Messina 

Bellini,  Gentile 

Bellini,  Giovanni 

Giorgione 

Carpaccio,  Vittore 

Lotto,  Lorenzo 

Titian 

Bonifazio  Veronese 

Tintoretto 

Veronese,  Paolo 

Pordenone 

Moretto  da   Brescia 

Moroni,  Gianibattista 
(v)    Rome: 

Sebastiano  del  Piombo 

Volterra,  Danicle  da 

Penni,  Gianfrancesco 

2.  The  Netherlands: 

Netherlands  Schools  of  Painting 
Eyck,  Huybrecht  and  Jan  van 
Weyden,  Rogier  van  der 
Bouts,  Dirk 
IMemling,  Hans 
David,  Gheeradt 
Massys,  Quinten 
Mabuse,  Jan 
Lucas  van  Leyden 

3.  Germany: 

Lochner,  Stephan 
Schongauer,  jMartin 
Wohlgemuth,  Michel 
Diirer,  Albrecht 
Burckmair,  Hans 
Cranach,  Lucas 
Holbein  the  Elder 
Holbein  the  Younger 
Griinewald,  Matthias 
Baldung,  Hans 


V.  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth 

Centuries. 

The  seventeenth  century  saw  the  rise 
of  the  Eclectic  and  Naturalist  schools 
in  Italy,  and  of  a  courtly  art,  based 
upon  the  classic,  in  France,  whose  art- 
ists in  Italy  also  perfected  the  heroic 
landscape.  In  Spain,  a  great  national 
art  <arose,  combining  Catholic  devotion 
with  a  trenchant  realism.  The  Flem- 
ish School  was  also  realistic,  but  more 
influenced  by  Italy,  and  less  religious  in 
character.  In  Holland,  a  highly  de- 
veloped national  I'ealism,  practically 
uninfluenced  from  without,  found  ex- 
pression in  panels  of  portrait,  genre, 
landscape,  animal,  and  still  life.  The 
eighteenth  century  witnessed  an  after 
development  of  the  courtly  painting  in 
France,  and  the  rise  in  England  of  a 
bourgeoise  art,  showing  a  curious  ad- 
mixture of  Eclectic  Italian  influence 
with  realism,  and  foreshadowing  that  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  See  Section 
Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  Centuries 
in  the  article  on  Painting. 

1.  Italy: 

Bologncse  School  of  Painting 

CarraccI 

Domenichino 

Reni,  Guido 

Guercino 

Dolci,  Carlo 

Caravaggio 

Ribera,  Jusepe  de 

Rosa,  Salvator 

Giordano,  Luca 

Tiepolo 

Canaletto 

2.  France: 

Cousin,  Jean 
Poussin,  Nicolas 
Poussin,  Gaspar 


140 


SCULPTURE     AND     PAINTING 


Gelee,  Claude 
Lebrun,  Charles 
Mignard,  Pierre 
Watteau,  Antoine 
Fragonard,  Jean  Honore 
Vernet 

Champagne,  Philippe  de 
Greuze,  Jean  Baptiste 

3.  Sp(n7i: 

Pacheco 

Herrera  the  Elder 

Valazquez 

Coello,  Claudio 

Zurbaran 

Cano,  Alonzo 

Murillo 

Goya  y  Lucientes 

4.  Flanders: 

Oost,  Jakob  van 

Rubens 

Van  Dyck 

Jordaens 

Snyders,  Frans 

Fyt,  Jan 

Teniers  the  Younger 

Bramver,  Adrian 

5.  Holland: 

Hals,  Frans 
Rembrandt 
Flinck,  Govaert 
Heist,  Bartholomcus 
Ostade,  Adriaen  van 
Steen,  Jan 
Dou,  Gerard 
Netscher,  Ivaspar 
Ncor,  Aart  van  der 
Terborch,  Gerard 
Ruysdacl,  Jacob 
Hobbema,  ]\Ieindert 
Everdiiigeii,  Allart  van 
Potter,  Paulus 
Veldc,  Adriaen  van  de 
Cuyp,  Albert 


Backhuysen,  Ludolf 

Velde,     Willem     van     de,     the 

Younger 
Heem,  Jan  de 
Huysum,  Jan  van 
Ruysch,  Rachel 
Weenix,  Jan 
Hondecoeter,  Melcliior 
6.  England: 

Kneller,  Sir  Godfrey 
Hogarth,  William 
Reynolds,  Joshua 
Gainsborough,  Thomas 
Romney,  George 
Wilson,  Richard 
IMorland,  George 

VI.  Modern  Painting. 

1.  France. 

During  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
hegemon}'  of  Europe  in  the  fine  arts 
belonged  to  France.  The  Rococo  art 
of  the  ancient  regime  was  succeeded  in 
the  last  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
by  Classicism,  which  found  the  chief 
beauty  of  painting  in  form,  as  revealed 
in  ancient  sculpture.  The  reaction 
upon  Classicism  was  Romanticism,  as 
established  in  the  third  decade  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  It  used  painting 
as  an  expression  of  the  ai'tist's  emo- 
tional nature,  and  placed  the  chief 
emphasis  upon  color  and  natural  truth. 
The  Barbison  School  represents  the 
emotional  impulse  of  Romanticism,  as 
applied  to  landscape,  animal  painting, 
and  peasant  subjects.  The  third  great 
factor  in  French  painting  is  Realism, 
as  established  by  Courbet  in  the 
forties.  It  advocated  the  abolition  of 
academic  law  and  sentiment,  and  the 
exact  presentation  of  natural  truth. 
Then  came  the  Impressionists  (1874), 
so   called   from   a   tendency   to   render 


SCULPTURE     AND     PAINTING 


141 


nioincntary  impressions,  who  souglit, 
above  all,  to  paint  effects  of  light.  In 
recent  years,  a  new  idealism  lias  availed 
itself  of  the  technical  achievements 
of  its  immediate  predecessors.     See: 

(a )   Classicists : 

David,  Jacques  Louis 

Girodet-Ti'ioson 

Prudhon,  Pierre 

Gros,  Antoine  Jean 

Ingres,  Jean  Auguste  Dominique 

i(6)   Romanticists: 

Gericault,  Jean  Louis 
Delacroix,  Eugene 
Delaroche,  Paul 
Scheffer,  Ary 

Decamps,  Alexandre  Gabriel 
Fromcntin,  Eugene 
Vernct,  Horace 

(c)  Barbison  School: 

Corot,  Jean  Baptiste  Camille 
Rousseau,  Theodore 
Dupre,  Jules 
Diaz  de  La  Pena 
Daubigny,  Charles  Fran9ois 
Cazin,  Jean  Charles 
Millet,  Jean  Francois 
Breton,  Jules  Adolphe 
Troyon,  Constant 
Bonheur,  Rosa 

(d)  Realists: 

Courbet,  Gustave 
Bonnat,  Leon 
Meissonier,  Ernest 

^(c)   Impressionists,  etc.: 
Manet,  Edouard 
Monet,  Claude 
Degas,  Hilairo  Germain 
Monticclli,  Adolphe 
RafFaelli,  Jean  Francois 


Moreau,  Gustave 

(/■)    Various  Schools: 

Flandrin,  Jean  Llippolyte 
Bougucreau,  Guillaume  Adolphe 
Gerome,   Jean   Leon 
Duran,  Carolus 
Constant,  Benjamin 
Neuville,  Alphonse  Marie  de 
Detaille,  Edouard 
Chavannes,  Puvis  de 

2.  Germany. 

In  Germany,  the  reaction  against 
Classicism  took  the  form  of  an  imitation 
of  Italian  masters  of  tlie  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  advocates  of  this  tendency, 
the  so-called  Nazarenes,  speedily  dif- 
ferentiated. Cornelius  founded  the 
Munich  School  of  mural  decoration, 
which  practiced  the  so-called  cartoon 
style,  in  which  color  was  entirely  neg- 
lected ;  the  same  tendency  was  repre- 
sented by  the  School  of  Diisscldorf. 
About  1850,  a  great  change  was  ef- 
fected by  French  and  Belgian  colorists  ; 
and  since  1870,  Realism  and  Impres- 
sionism have  found  entrance.     See: 

(rt)    Pre-Raphaelites : 

Diisseldorf  School  of  Paintins 
IMengs,  Raphael 
Carstens,  Asmus  Jakob 
Overbeck,  Johann  Friedrlch 
Cornelius,  Peter  von 
Kaulbach,  Wilhelm  von 
Rethel,  Alfred 
Schwind,  IMoritz  von 
Lessing,  Karl  Friedrich 
Prcller,   Friedrich 
Rottmann,  Karl 
Feuerbach,  Anselm 
Bocklin,  Arnold 
Piloty,  Karl 
IMakart,  Hans 


142 


SCULPTURE     AND     PAINTING 


Max,  Gabriel 
Defregger,  Franz  von 
Griitzner,  Eduard 
Menzel,  Adolf 
Lenbach,  Franz 
Liebcrmann,  Max 
Klinger,  Max 

3.  Great  Britain. 

In  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  the  English  followed  their 
own  eighteenth-century  models  in  por- 
traiture, and  painted  historical  pictures 
of  an  academic  order.  At  the  same 
time,  Constable  originated  the  modern 
landscape,  which  the  Barbison  school 
adopted.  A  reaction  against  the  aca- 
demic came  about  through  the  Pre- 
Raphaelitcs,  who  introduced  spiritual 
and  realistic  elements.  Though  there 
has  of  late  been  French  influence,  Brit- 
ish art  has  remained  national.     See: 

Racburn,  Sir  Henry 

Lawrence,  Sir  Thomas 

Hay  don,  Benjamin  Robert 

Eastlake,  Sir  Charles 

Blake,  William 

Wilkie,  David 

Mulrcady,  William 

Constable,  John 

Cox,  David 

Rossetti,  Dante  Gabriel 

Hunt,  William  Holman 

Burne-Jonos,  Sir  Edward 

Millais,  Sir  .John  Everett 

Crane,  Walter 

Watts,  George  Frederick 

Herkomer,  Hubert 

4.  Other  Countries. 

In  other  European  countries,  the  de- 
velopment through  the  Classical,  Ro- 
mantic, and  Naturalistic  stages  was  not 
dissimilar  to  tliose  already  described. 
All  have  profited  by  French  technical 


methods,  and  are,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  swayed  by  Realistic  tendencies. 
See: 

Israels,  Josef 

Mesdag,  Hendrik  Willem 

Mauve,  Anton 

Wappers,  Gustave 

Wiertz,  Antoine  Joseph 

Alma-Tadema,  Lawrence 

Stevens,  Alfred 

Munkacsy,  Michael 

Fortuny  y  Carbo 

Segantini,  Giovanni 

Vereshtchagin,  Vassili 
5.   United  States. 

During  the  Colonial  period  and  im- 
mediately after  the  Revolution,  British 
influences  prevailed  in  the  United 
States,  with  an  inclination  to  follow  the 
Italians  in  larger  subjects.  An  in- 
digenous art  began  with  the  self-taught 
Hudson  River  School,  about  1825. 
Then  came  the  foreign  influence,  and, 
since  1875,  French  methods  have  been 
quite  generally  adopted,  the  natural 
characteristics  revealing  themselves  in 
choice  of  subject  and  conceptions, 
(a)    Early  Period: 

West,  Benjamin 

Copley,  John  Singleton 

Truiiibull,  John 

Stuart,  Gilbert 

Allston,  Washington 

Peale,  Rembrandt 

Sully,  Thomas 
{h)   Middle  Period: 

Cole,  Thomas 

Kcnsett,  Jolui  Frederick 

Church,  Frederick  Edwin 

Bierstadt,  Albert 

Moran,  Thomas 

Harding,  Chester 

Inman,  Henry 


SCULPTURE    AND    PAINTING 


143 


Huntington,  Daniel 
Mount,  William  Sidney 
Leutze,  Emanuel 
Hicks,  Thomas 
Fuller,  George 
Hunt,  William  Morris 

(c)    Third  Period: 

Johnson,  Eastman 
Vedder,  Elihu 
La  Farge,  John 
Homer,  Winslow 


Inness,  George 

Wyant,  A.  H. 

Martin,  Homer  D. 

Chase,  William  Mcrritt 

Cox,  Kenyon 

Blashfield,  Edwin  H. 

Twachtman,  John  Henry 

Robinson,  Theodore 

Whistler,  James  Abbott  McNeil 

Abbey,  Edwin  A. 

Sargent,  John  Singer 

Harrison,    (Thomas)   Alexander 


Olljajtter  n.    El\t  Mxmt  Arts 


A.    Eitgrauiiig 


Engraving  is  the  art  of  producing 
on  a  hard  surface,  such  as  stone,  metal, 
or  wood,  incised  or  reHef  designs. 
These  may  be  for  purposes  of  decor- 
ation, as  in  the  case  of  engraved 
bronzes  and  silverware,  or  for  stamping 
a  soft  substance,  as  seal  rings.  But 
engravings  are  usually  made  for  the 
purpose  of  printing  upon  paper,  and 
it  is  this  variety  with  which  we  are 
chiefly  concerned. 

Printing  is  done  either  from  incised 
designs  to  which  the  ink  is  applied,  or 
from  relief  designs,  which  thus  produce 
the  image.  In  the  first  process,  metal 
plates,  usually  of  copper,  are  used ;  the 
principal  varieties  are  Line-Engraving 
and  Etching,  to  which  may  be  added 
Dry  Point,  ^lanicre  Criblec,  and  Stip- 
ple. The  chief  form  of  Engraving  in 
relief  is  Wood-Engraving ;  and  there 
are  mixed  processes,  like  Aquatint,  Mez- 
zotint, and  Soft-Ground  Etching. 
The  trial  impressions  upon  paper  are 
called  the  proofs,  and  the  final  result 
the  print.  The  article  Engraving 
contains  a  general  sketch  of  the  subject. 
See  also: 

Line-Engraving 

Etching 

Dry  Point 

IManiere  Criblee 

Stipple 

Wood-Engraving 

Afjuatinta 

.Mezzotint 

Soft-Ground  Etching 
T.  Line  Engraving. 

Line-Engraving  is  done  with  the 
burin,  usually  upon  a  copper  plate.   It 


originated  simultaneously  in  Italy  and 
Germany  during  the  early  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, probably  with  the  goldsmiths, 
from  the  custom  of  printing  trial  im- 
pressions of  niello  plates.  (See 
Niello.)  The  earliest  line-engravings 
are  mere  outline  drawings  without  light 
or  shade.  In  the  early  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, the  art  culminated  in  the  works  of 
Albrccht  Diirer  in  Germany,  Lucas  van 
Leyden  in  Holland,  and  INIarcantonio 
Raimondi  in  Italy.  During  the  seven- 
teenth century,  especially  under  Louis 
XIV,  France  was  predominant.  But 
artists  devoted  themselves  increasingly 
to  the  reproduction  of  great  jDaintings 
instead  of  original  designs.  For  tliis 
reason,  the  art  has  gradually  sunk  into 
disuse,  its  place  being  taken  by  photo- 
grapliic  processes.      See: 

Linc-Engravinef 

Burin 

Niello 

1.  Italy: 

Finigucrra,  Toniaso 
Jacopo  dei  Barbari 
Mantegna,  Andrea 
Raimondi,  IMarcantonio 
Carracci,  Agostino 
Morghen,  Raffaello 
Piranesi,  Giambattista 

2.  Germany;  Netherlands: 

Schongauer,  Martin 
Diirer,  Albreclit 
Lucas  van  Leyden 
Beham,  Hans  Sebald 
Beham,   Bartliel 
Vorsternian,  Lucas 
Chodowiccki,  Daniel 


144 


THE    MINOR    ARTS 


145 


S.  England: 


Strange,  Sir  Robert 
Vcrtue,  George 


4.  France: 

Bosse,  Abraham 
Nanteuil,  Robert 
Masson,  Antoinc 
Audran,  Gerard 
Cochin,  Charles  Nicolas 
Forster,  Francois 
Henriquel-Dupont,  Louis  Pierre 
Gaillard,  Claude  Ferdinand 

II.  Etching. 

In  etching,  the  plate  is  covered  with 
the  ground,  usually  a  varnish,  into 
which  the  design  is  scratched  with  an 
etching-needle.  The  plate  is  then  im- 
mersed in  an  acid,  which  eats  the  design 
into  the  metal.  The  finishing  touches 
are  often  done  by  the  dry-point  process, 
a  simple  scratching  of  the  plate  with- 
out the  use  of  ground  or  acid. 

Etching  upon  steel  armor,  etc.,  was 
practiced  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Diirer 
was  one  of  the  first  to  use  etching  for 
printing  purposes,  and  the  art  reached 
its  highest  development  in  Holland  dur- 
ing the  seventeenth  century.  Many 
eminent  painters  practiced  it,  among 
whom  was  the  greatest  etcher  of  all 
times,  Rembrandt.  Next  to  Holland, 
etching  was  principally  cultivated  in 
France,  beginning  with  Claude  Lor- 
rain's  landscapes.  The  art  found  a 
revival  in  the  nineteenth  century,  es- 
pecially in  France,  where  many  of  the 
principal  painters  have  used  the  etch- 
ing-needle. In  other  countries,  as  in 
England,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States,  it  has  also  attained  high  im- 
portance.    It   would  be   impossible   to 


cite  the  biographies  of  all  the  important 
painters  who  have  practiced  etching. 

1.  Netherlands: 

Lucas  van  Leyden 
Vclde,  Esaias  van  de 
Rembrandt 
Ruysdael,  Jacob 
Van  Dyck,  Anthony 

2.  France: 

Gclee,  Claude 
Flameng,  Leopold 
Raj  on,  Paul 
RafFaelli,  Jean  Franfois 
Meryon,  Charles 
Legros,  Alphonse 
Tissot,  James 
Helleu,  Paul 

3.  Germany: 

Unger,  William 
Klinger,  Max 
Thoma,  Hans 
Licbermann,  Max 

4.  England: 

Geddcs,  Andrew 
Wilkie,  Sir  David 
Turner,  J.  M.  W. 
Hamcrton,  Philip  Gilbert 
Haden,  Francis  Seymour 
Mcnpes,  Mortimer 

5.  United  States: 

Whistler,  James  Abbott  McNeil 
Pennell,  Joseph 

III.  Wood-Engraving. 

In  Wood-Engraving,  the  design  is 
drawn  directly  upon  the  block,  and  all 
the  wood  is  cut  away  except  the  design, 
which  remains  in  relief.  The  process 
is  of  peculiar  importance  because  it  can 
be  used  in  connection  with  printing 
from  movable  types. 

Crude  outline  prints  from  wood-cuts 


146 


THE    MINOR    ARTS 


were  common  in  Southern  Germany 
and  the  Netherlands  in  the  early  fif- 
teenth century.  The  art  received  an 
impetus  from  the  invention  of  print- 
ing, and  the  early  wood-engraving  at- 
tained its  most  perfect  development 
during  the  following  century  in  the 
works  of  Albrecht  Diirer  and  Hans 
Holbein  in  Germany.  It  was  intro- 
duced by  German  artists  Into  Italy, 
where  it  never  became  thoroughly  ac- 
climatized; though  chiaroscuro  at- 
tained a  high  degree  of  proficiency. 
(See  paragraph  Chiaroscuro  under 
Wood-Engeaving.)  It  flourished  in 
the  Netherlands  and  in  France,  with 
Jean  Cousin  in  the  sixteenth  century, 
and  the  Papillon  family  in  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth. 

Modern  wood-engraving  is  done  on 
the  cross-grain  of  boxwood,  and  with 
a  graver  instead  of  the  knife.  The 
design  is  cut  away  instead  of  being  left 
in  relief,  appearing  in  white  lines.  The 
father  of  the  art  was  Thomas  Bewick 
(died  in  1828).  His  pupils  rivaled 
the  line-engravers  as  book  illustrators, 
some  imitating  line-engraving.  In 
England,  the  art  has  declined,  the  pub- 
lic preferring  the  more  accurate  pho- 
tographic processes.  Present  German 
wood-engraving  is,  generally  speaking, 
precise  and  careful  in  execution ;  but 
the  French  school  has  attained  the 
highest  artistic  perfection. 

Before  the  Civil  War,  America  pro- 
duced several  wood-engravers  of  high 
rank,  whose  work  resembled  contempo- 
rary British.  But  after  1870,  in  con- 
nection with  the  popular  magazines,  a 
school  arose  which  reproduced  the  ef- 
fect of  painting,  drawings,  etc.,  with 
•  remarkable  fidelity,  and  used  the  tech- 
nical   proficiency    acquired    to    render 


portraits  and  landscapes.  Since  the 
perfection  of  the  photographic  pro- 
cesses, wood-engravers  have  returned 
to  more  legitimate  practice,  thanks 
largely  to  the  efforts  of  Linton.  At 
the  head  of  the  American  school  stands 
Timothy  Cole.     See: 

1.  Germany: 

Diirer,  Albrecht 
Burckmair,  Hans 
Schauffelein,  Hans 
Holbein  the  Younger 
Liitzelburger,  Hans 
Cranach,  Lucas 
Altdorfer,  Albrecht 
Beham,  Hans  Sebald 
Aldegrever,  Heinrich 
Baldung,  Hans 
Menzel,  Adolf 
Richter,  Ludwig 

2.  France: 

Cousin,  Jean 
Charpcnticr,  Fran9ois 
Johannot,  Charles 
Johannot,  Tony 
Grandville 
Gavarni 
Dore,  Gustave 

3.  Italy: 

Carpi,  Ugo  da 
Andreani,  Andrea 

4.  England: 

Bewick,  Thomas 
Blake,  William 
Linton,  William  James 

5.  United  States: 

Cole,  TImotliy 
Jucngling,  Frederick 
Kruell,  Gustav 
Durand,  Ashcr  Brown 
Smillie,  James  I). 
Danforth,  Moseley  Isaac 


THE   MINOR   ARTS 


147 


IV.  LiTHOGEAPHY. 

In  lithographic  processes,  the  design 
^  is  drawn  with  crayon  or  fatty  ink  upon 
a  porous  stone  or  metal,  possessing  the 
property  of  retaining  fatty  substances 
and  water  to  the  evaporating  point. 
The  remainder  of  the  stone  is  moistened 
with  water.  A  roller  covered  with  fatty 
printing  ink  will  retain  only  the  de- 
sign, being  repelled  by  the  moist  por- 
tions. Lithography  was  invented  in 
1798,  by  Aloys  Senefelder  at  Munich. 
Since  the  invention  of  the  power  press, 
it  has  become  a  world-wide  industry. 
See: 

Lithography 

Senefelder,  Aloys 

V.  Photo-Engraving. 

This  is  a  mechanical  process  in 
which  the  plates  are  prepared  from  a 
photographic  negative  by  means  of  the 
action  of  light  upon  gelatine  and  other 
substances.  It  may  be  intaglio,  in 
which  the  French  name  photogravure 
is  used,  or  relief.  The  finishing  touches 
are  done  by  hand.  The  half-tone  pro- 
cess, now  generally  used  for  purposes 
of  illustration,  is  done  on  plates  of 
ruled  lines  of  extreme  fineness.  See 
Photo-Engraving. 

VI.  Illustration. 

The  article  Illustration  treats  the 
decoration  and  illustration  of  books, 
and  its  history  from  the  Egyptian 
papyri  to  the  modern  newspaper.  This 
should    be  supplemented    by    Manu- 


scripts, Illumination  of,  treating 
especially  the  Middle  Ages  and  Renais- 
sance. With  the  invention  of  print- 
ing, wood-engraving  {q.  v.)  became  the 
principal  means  of  illustration.  Since 
1850,  photo-engravings  have  been  in- 
creasingly used,  and,  in  recent  years, 
colored  illustrations,  some  of  great 
beauty,  are  being  produced,  especially 
by  the  great  magazines.  The  article 
Caricature  describes  in  detail  the  im- 
portant influence  of  that  factor  of 
illustration.  The  principal  illustra- 
tors are  enumerated  under  Wood-En- 
graving.  a  brief  list  of  caricaturists 
is  subjoined. 

1.  France: 

Callot,  Jacques 
Daumicr,  Honore 
Gavarni 
Monnier,  Henri 
Cham 

2.  England: 

Hogarth,  William 
Gilray,  James 
Cruikshank,  George 
Cruikshank,  Isaac 
Doyle,  John 
Doyle,  Richard 
Leech,  John 
Du  Maurier,  George 
Tenniel,  Sir  John 

3.  United  States: 

Gibson,  Charles  Dana 
Opper,  Frederick  Burr 
Nast,  Thomas 


(dliaptpr  12.    Mmu 


To  appreciate  music  requires  merely  a  receptive  temperament. 
Obviously,  the  more  one  understands  of  the  technique  whereby 
certain  harmonious  results  are  produced,  the  greater  will  be  the 
enjoyment  of  those  results.  But,  irrespective  of  the  critical  inter- 
est in  music,  its  first  appeal  must  be,  and  is,  to  the  imagination 
and  the  emotions.  The  layman  in  the  audience  is  not  thrilled  by  the  cold,  techni- 
cal fact  that  the  violinist,  yonder  on  the  stage,  is  producing  that  wonderfully 
soft,  birdlike  note  by  the  infinitesimal,  even  pressure  of  his  little  finger  on  the 
highest  possible  note  of  the  A  string.  The  musicians,  the  violinists,  the  critics, 
realize  the  j^ears  of  study  that  have  contributed  to  the  production  of  that  perfect 
note,  and  their  admiration  is  greater,  but  their  enjoyment  of  the  emotional  result 
is  no  more  keen,  than  that  of  the  musical  proselyte  beside  them. 

This  theory,  which  is  based  on  actualities,  finds  its  logical  expression  in  the 
system  that  has  been  adopted  in  outlining  the  department  of  Music  in  the  New 
International  EncyclopcEdia.  There  is,  first,  a  synopsis  of  the  articles  which 
would  interest  the  general  reader  by  giving  an  historical  and  appreciative  resume 
of  music  as  an  art.  The  second  subdivision  is  more  especially  for  the  student,  or 
for  the  reader  who  desires  to  master  the  technique  and  science  of  music,  in  order 
that  he  may  "  see  with  an  understanding  eye  "  and  hear  with  a  critical  nicety  of 
discrimination. 


1.  Introductory. 

Music 

Music,  Schools  of  Composition       ' 

Sacred  Music 

Opera  (with  the  accompanying 
lists  of  operas) 

Oratorio  (with  the  accompany- 
ing list  of  oratorios) 

Instrumental  Music 

Musical  Instruments  (with  cross 
references  to  individual  arti- 
cles or  instruments,  under 
their  own  names) 

Orchestra 

Score 

Band 

Band,  Military 

Organ 

Pianoforte 

Violin 

Singing 

148 


Dancing    (with   cross  references 
to  separate  articles) 
Historical. 
Folk-Music 
Egyptian  Music 
Hindu  Music 
Chinese  Music 
Japanese  ]\Iusic 
Hebrew  Music 
Greek  Music 
Magyar  ]\Iusic 
Arabian  IMusic 
Scandinavian  Music 
Slavonic  iNIusie 
Spanish  Music 
Janizary  Music 
Celtic  IMusic 
Scotch  Music 
Indian  Music 
Negro  Melodies 
Mcistcrsingcr 


MUSIC 

149 

Minnesinger 

Form 

Troubadours 

Fugue 

Trouvere 

Glee 

Waits 

Humoreske 

Ambrosian  Chant 

Imitation 

Gregorian  Chant 

Introduction 

• 

Hymnology 

Legend 

National  Hymns 

Leitmotiv 
Lied 

3.  Musical  Organizations,  etc. 

Liedform 

Guilds,  Musical  (under  Guild) 

Musical  Drama 

Conservatory 

Nocturne 

Conductor 

Offertory 

Precentor 

Overture 

Musical  Festival 

Passion 

Gesellschaft  der  Osterreichischen 

Pasticcio 

Musikfreunde 

Postlude 

Gewandhaus-Concerte 

Pot-pourri 

Leeds  Musical  Festival 

Prelude 

Choral  Societies 

Programme  Music 

Philharmonic  Societies 

Quartet 

Pittsburg  Orchestra 

Recitative 

Societe  des  Concerts  du  Conser- 

Requiem 

vatoire 

Rhapsody 

Sons  of  the  Clergy  Musical  Fes- 

Rondo 

tival 

Scherzo 

Chicago  Orchestra 

Serenade 

Three  Choirs  Festival 

Singspiel 

Tonkiinstler-Societat 

Solo 

Bethlehem,  Musical  or  Bach  Fes- 

Sonata 

tival 

Song 

Worcester  Musical  Festival 

Suite 
Symphony 

4.  The  Art-Forms. 

Trio 

Canon 

Cantata 

Catch 

Chamber  Music 

Chant 

Chorale 

Concerto 

Cyclical  Forms 

Duet 

Fantasia 


5.  Defixitioxs  and  Descriptions  op 
Terms  and  Processes  Used  in 
the  Interpretation  of  Music. 

Musical  Dictation 

Beat 

Baton 

Rest 

Tempo 

Temperament 


150 


MUSIC 


Time 

Rhythm 

Syncoj^ation 

Expression 

Musical  Notation 

]\Iodulation 

Intonation 

Fingering 

Position 

Touch 

Phrase 

Phrasing 

Slide 

Swell 

Register 

Voicing 

Augmentation 

Movement 

Passing  Notes 

Quaver 

Tremolo 

Trill 

Treble 

Bass 

Neumes 

Value 

Clang  Tint,  Explanation  of 

Finger-board 

Keyboard 

Clavichord 

Janko  Keyboard 

Harpsichord 

Spinet 

Manual 

Metronome 

Pedul 

String 

Virginal 

Transposing  Instruments 

Valves    in    Musical    Iiislruments 

(under  Valve) 
Voice 
Sec    also    Piano,    Organ,    Singing, 
and  Musical  Instruments. 


6.  Miscellaneous    and    Technical 
Articles. 
The    reader   who   has    followed    the 
course   outlined   in   the   earlier    subdi- 
visions, will  find  that  the  followins  ar- 
tides  are  mainly  specialized  statements 
of  general  principles  with  which  he  is 
already  familiar : 
Harmony : 

Ant  i  phony 

Bar 

Cadence 

Cantus  Firmus 

Chord 

Chromatic 

Clef 

Coda 

Complement 

Consonance 

Degree 

Diatonic  Scale 

Diazeutic  Tone 

Discord 

Dissonance 

Dominant 

Figured  Bass 

Finale 

Flat 

Four-part  Writing 

Frets 

Fundamental  Note 

Grace-notes 

Guidonian  Hand 

Harmonics 

Homophony 

Imitation 

Improvisation 

Incidentals 

Instrumentation 

Interval 

Invention 

Inversion 

Key 

Key-note 


MUSIC 


151 


Leading  Tone 

Leading  of  A'oiccs 

Leger-Lines 

Major 

Measure 

Mediant 

Melody 

Meloplaste 

Melos 

Mensurable  Music 

]\Ietre 

Minor 

Mixed  Cadence 

Modes 

Monody 

Motion 

Motive 

Natural 

Nuances 

Numerical  Notation 

Octave 

Organ-Point 

Organum 

Paraphrase 

Part 

Part-book 

Part-music 

Passage 

Passing  Notes 

Pitch 

Plain  Chant 

Polyphony 

Preparation 

Principal 

Progression 

Reed 

Relationship 

Scale 

Semitone 

Sequence 

Sharp 

Solmization 

Subdominant 

Suspension 


Tablaturc 

Theme 

Tierce 

Tonality 

Tone 

Tonic 

Tonic  Sol-fa 

Touch 

Transcription 

Transposition 

Triad 

Triplet 

Typical  Phrase 

Unison 

Variation 

Biography. 

A  selected  list  of  the  world's  great 
composers  would  include  the  following 
names : 

Adam,  A.  C. 

Agricola,  M. 

Allegri,  G. 

Anerio,  F. 

Animuccia,  G. 

Arcadelt,  J. 

Arne,  T.  A. 

Auber,  D.  F.  E. 

Bach,  J.  S. 

Bach,  K.  P. 

Balfe,  M.  W. 

Barnby,  J. 

Beethoven,  L. 

Bellini,  V. 

Benedict,  J. 

Bennett,  W.  S. 

Berlioz,  H. 

Bizet,  G. 

Boieldieu,  F.  A. 

Brahms,  J. 

Bull,  J. 

Bononcini,  G.  B. 

Buxtehude,  D. 

Caccini,  G. 


152 


MUSIC 


Cambert,  R. 
Carissimi,  G. 
Cavalieri,  E. 
Cherubini,  IM.  L. 
Chopin,  F.  F. 
Cimarosa,  D. 
Clementi,  M. 
Corelli,  A. 
Couperin,  F. 
David,  F.  C. 
Depres,  J. 
Donizetti,  G. 
Durante,  F. 
Dvorak,  A. 
Festa,  C. 
Field,  J. 
Flotow,  F. 
Franz,  R. 
Frescobaldi,  G. 
Froberger,  J.  J. 
Gabrieli,  A. 
Gabrieli,  G. 
Gade,  N.  W. 
Gibbons,  O. 
Glinka,  M.  I. 
Gluck,  C.  W. 
Gosscc,  F.  J. 
Goudimel,  C. 
Gounod,  C.  F. 
Graun,  K.  H. 
Gretry,  A.   E.  M. 
Hadley,  H.  K. 
Halevy,  J.  F. 
Handel,  G.  F. 
Haydn,  J. 
Herold,  L.  J.  F. 
Hiller,  J.  A. 
Hofhaimer,  P. 
Humfrey,  P. 
Hiinimel,  J.  N. 
Isaak,  H. 
Isouard,  N. 
.ToniiiK'lli,  N. 
Keiser,  R. 


Kiel,  F. 

Lasso,  Orlando  di 

Leo,  L. 

Leoncavallo,  R. 

Le  Sueur,  J.  F. 

Liszt,  F. 

Logroscino,  N. 

Lortzing,  G.  A. 

Lully,  J.  B. 

McDowell,  E.  A. 

Marschner,  H. 

Mascagni,  P. 

Massenet,  J.  E.  F. 

Mendelssohn-Bartholdy,  F. 

Meyerbeer,  G. 

Monteverde,  C. 

Morley,  T. 

Mozart,  W.  A. 

Nanini,  G.  M. 

Offenbach,  J, 

Okegliem 

Pachelbel,  J. 

Paisiello,  G. 

Palestrina,  G.  P. 

Pergolesc,  G.  B. 

Piccini,  N. 

Ponchielli,  A. 

Porpora,  N.  A. 

PrJitorius,  M. 

Purcell,  H. 

Raff,  J. 

Ranieau,  J.  P. 

Rossini,  G.  A. 

Rubinstein,  A. 

Sacchini,  A.  ]\I. 

Saint-Saens,  C  C. 

Scarlatti,  A. 

Schubert,  F. 

Sclunnann,  R. 

Schiitz,  H. 

Smctana,  F. 

Spohr,  L. 

Spontini,  G.  L. 

Strauss,  J. 


MUSIC 


153 


Strauss,  R. 
Sullivan,  A.  S. 
Suppe,  F. 
Tartini,  G. 
Thomas,  A. 
Tschaikowsky,  P.  I. 
Verdi,  G. 

Viotti,  G.  B.  •* 

Wagner,  R. 
Wallace,  W.  V. 
Weber,  K.  M. 
Willaert,  A. 
Zingarelli,  N.  A. 
Note — The  names  of  famous  operas, 
oratorios,   symphonies,   dances, 


and  national  hymns  have  been 
omitted  from  tlie  above  classi- 
fication. In  the  majority  of 
cases,  they  will  bo  found  under 
their  own  proper  titles,  al- 
though brief  mention  of  them 
would  also  be  found  in  the  gen- 
eral articles  Opera,  Oratorio, 
Symphony,  and  National 
Hymns.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  scores  of  musical  instru- 
ments and  musical  directions 
whose  names  will  be  found  un- 
der the  general  articles  Musi- 
cal Instruments  and  Tempo. 


Ollfapt^r  13-    iiatlj^matirB 


ROUGHLY    defined,  mathematics  is  the  science  of    forms  and  number. 
A   few   of   the    definitions    given   by   eminent   mathematicians   are 
found  in  the  general  article  IMathematics,  which  is,  therefore,  a 
J   suitable  introduction  to  the  subject.     The  article  gives  a  condensed 
history  of  mathematics,  from  earliest  times  to  the  present,  together 
-with  a  logical  classification  of  the  various  branches  of  mathematics. 

Mathematical  science  naturally  falls  into  two  main  subdivisions:  Pure 
Mathematics  and  Applied  Mathematics.  With  this  division  as  a  basis,  various 
classifications  have  been  attempted.  The  best  classification  for  the  purpose  of 
systematic  reading  is  the  one  usually  followed  in  the  school  curriculum,  or  in  the 
text-books.  In  accordance  with  this,  we  may  subdivide  Elementary  IMathematics 
into  the  following  branches : 


Arithmetic 

Algebra 

Geometry 

Trigonometry 

Analytic  Geometry 

Calculus 

1.  Arithmetic  involves  three 
phases:  The  conception  of  number, 
the  representation  of  number  by  sym- 
bols, and  the  principles  and  methods  of 
computation.  A  general  discussion  of 
these  phases,  together  with  their  his- 
tory, is  given  in  the  article  Arithme- 
tic, which,  therefore,  should  be  read  as 
an  introduction  to  this  branch. 

A  more  modern  phase  of  arithmetic 
is  computation  by  calculating  ma- 
chines. This  process  has  already  to  a 
large  extent  replaced  those  by  hand, 
and  seems  to  be  destined  to  do  so  en- 
tirely in  a  future  not  far  distant. 

The  general  articles  bearing  on  tliis 
branch  may  be  conveniently  read  in  the 
following  order: 

(«)  Principles  and  Metlwds  of  Com- 
putation: 
Addition 
Subtraction 
Multiplication 

154 


Division 

Arithmetic  Signs 

Fraction 

Involution  and  Evolution 

Proportion 

Checking  in  Arithmetic 

Calculating  Machines 

Slide  Rule 

{b)  Symbols,     Representation,      and 
Scales: 
Symbols 
Numerals 
Decimal  System 
Scales  of  Notation 

(c)   Theory  of  Numbers: 

Number 

Irrational  Number 

Complex  Number 
The  detailed  history  of  these  topics 
is  given  separately  in  each  article. 

2.  Algebra  is  universal  arithmetic, 
and  has  many  features  in  common  with 
arithmetic.  The  fundamental  ojiera- 
tions  arc  tlie  same,  with  tlio  exception 
that  algebra  takes  uj)  the  more  general 
case.  Tile  limitations  of  algebra  are 
brought  out  in  the  general  article  Al- 
CF.HRA,  where  also  a  history  of  this 
branch   is   given.      Since   algebra   and 


MATHEMATICS 


155 


arithmetic  are  so  closely  related,  the 
fundamental  operations  are  best  treated 
together,  and  so  the  general  articles 
bearing  on  the  fundamental  operations 
in  algebra  have  been  given  under  arith- 
metic. Those  belonging  almost  exclu- 
sively to  algebra  are  best  taken  up  in 
the  following  order: 

Coefficient 

Factor 

Exponent 

Associative  Law 

Polynomial 

Negative  Quantity 

Binomial 

Binomial  Coefficients 

Binomial  Tlicorcm 

Remainder  Tlieorem 

Equation 

Elimination 

Substitution 

Diophantine  Analysis 

Series 

False  Position,  Rule  of 

Cubic  Equation 

Biquadratic  Equations 

Permutations  and  Combinations 

Probability 

Determinants 

Logarithms 

Analysis 

3.  Geometry  is  the  science  of  form, 
and  geometric  concepts  arise  from  the 
consideration  of  forms  of  objects  just 
as  numerical  concepts  arise  from  con- 
sidering a  collection  of  objects.  Ge- 
ometry is  independent  of  algebra,  and 
may  be  studied  before  or  after  algebra, 
but  preferably  after.  The  physical 
scientist  considers  only  the  space  we 
live  in,  while  the  mathematician  con- 
siders all  possible  spaces.  Accordingly, 
we  have  many  different  kinds  of  geom- 
etry,    A  general  classification  and  dis- 


cussion of  the  several  geometries  is 
given  in  the  article  Geometry.  Al- 
though algebra  and  geometry  are  inde- 
pendent, a  correspondence  may  be  set 
up  between  them.  This  is  brought  out 
in  the  article  Correspondence.  The 
general  articles  are  best  read  in  the 
following  order: 

Euclid 

Axiom 

Theorem 

Corollary 

Angle 

Arithmetic  and  Geometric  Signs 

Equiangular 

Congruence 

Duality 

Construction 

Locus 

Triangle 

Circle 

Quadrilateral 

Polygon 

Circumscribed  and  Inscribed  Figures 

Contact 

Perimeter 

Transversal 

Antiparallels 

Concurrence  and  Collinearity 

Maxima  and  Minima 

Similarity 

Symmetry 

Plane 

Octahedron 

Polyhedron 

Projective  Geometry 

Projection 

Homology 

Perspective 

Isopcrimetric  Figures 

Calculating  Machines 

Slide  Rule 

Engineering  Instruments 

Surveying 


156 


MATHEMATICS 


Planimeter 
Mensuration 
Protractor 
Vernier 
Quadrature 

Weights  and  Measures 
Duplication  of  Cube   (under  Cube) 
Quadrature  of  Circle  (under  Quad- 
rature) 
Trisection  of  an  Angle 

4.  Trigonometry  in  elementary 
mathematics  deals  with  the  study  of 
triangles,  the  measurement  of  their 
sides,  angles,  and  areas.  This  is,  how- 
ever, only  a  part  of  the  general  sub- 
ject. Under  the  article  Trigonom- 
etry, almost  a  whole  text-b'ook  treat- 
ment is  given,  together  with  a  short 
history  of  the  subject  from  earliest 
times.  As  an  inti-oduction,  read  the 
article  Logarithms.  An  elementary 
knowledge  of  algebra  and  geometry  is, 
however,  necessary  before  the  study  of 
trigonometry  can  be  taken  up. 

5.  Analytic  Geometry  is  the 
application  of  algebra  to  geometry, 
and  the  combination  of  the  two  is  the 
most  powerful  tool  of  the  modern  math- 
ematician. iVIore  general  results  may 
be  deduced,  and  better  classification 
effected,  by  means  of  analysis.  In  the 
general  article  Analytic  Geome- 
try, the  aim  and  general  method  of 
procedure  is  given,  together  with  a 
short  history  of  tlie  subject.  The  other 
articles  may  be  conveniently  read  in 
the  following  order: 

Coordinates 

Graphic  Method 

Curve 

Analysis 

Cartesians 

Parameter 

Locus 


Contact 

Normal 

Tangent 

Conic  Sections 

Circle 

Pole  and  Polar 

Parabola 

Ellipse 

Hyperbola 

Surface 

Cone 

Conoid 

Spheroid 

Generation 

Higher  Plane  Curves: 

In  these,  are  included  all  transcen- 
dental and  all  algebrajc  curves  above 
the  second  order.  As  an  introduction, 
read  the  article  Curve.  Some  of  the 
most  important  ones  are: 

Cardioid 

Catenary 

Cissoid 

Conchoid 

Curve  of  Sines 

Cycloid 

Logarithmic  Curve 

Spiral 

Lemniscate 

Loxodrome 

Witch 

6.  Calculi's.  This  term  usually 
refers  to  Differential  and  Integral  Cal- 
culus. Differential  Calculus  deals 
with  tlie  relation  between  indefinitely 
small  (juantities  or  infinitesimals,  and 
is  of  great  service  when  the  quantities 
*under  consideration  arc  constantly 
changing.  The  problem  of  Integral 
Calculus  is  the  inverse  of  that  of  Dif- 
ferential Calculus.  Integral  Calculus 
also  deals  with  the  application  of 
calculus   to   mechanics   and   geometry. 


MATHEMATICS 


157 


In  the  general  article  Calculus,  the 
methods  and  applications  of  calculus 
are  illustrated  by  the  solution  of  prac- 
tical problems.  As  a  historical  intro- 
duction, read : 

Indivisibles   (under  Cavalieri) 

Fluxions 

The  general  article  Calculus, 
should  also  be  preceded  by : 

Analysis 

Limits,  Theory  of 

Infinity  and  the  Infinitesimal 
and  followed  by: 

Maclaurin's  Theorem  (under  Mac- 
laurin) 

Curve 

Osculation 

Quadrature 

Differential  Equations  (under  Equa- 
tion) 

7.  Higher  jMathematics  is  a  col- 
lective term  for  all  branches  of  mathe- 
matics that  follow  calculus.  Most  of 
these  branches  are  based  on  calculus, 
but  some,  like  the  theory  of  numbers 
and  group  theory,  are  independent  of 
calculus.  The  following  articles  will 
furnish  an  introduction  to  some  of  the 
branches  of  higher  mathematics: 

Forms 

Functions 

Modern  Geometry  (under  Geome- 
try) 

Non-Euclidean  Geometry  (under 
Geometry  ) 

Quaternions 

Substitution 

Theory  of  Numbers  (under  Num- 
ber) 

8.  Applied  Mathematics  deals 
with  the  application  of  mathematics  to 
related  sciences,  like  Mechanics,  Astron- 
omy, Physics,  etc.  See  these  depart- 
ments in  this  work. 


9.  Biography.  Mathematical 
knowledge  dates  back  to  tiic  Egyptian 
and  Babylonian  civilizations,  but  the 
real  development  begins  in  Greece. 
This  was  chiefly  in  the  realms  of  geom- 
etry. Later  it  iiclincd  toward  arith- 
metic. The  Romans  did  nothing  for 
mathematics,  and  the  Arabs  very  little 
more  than  to  translate  and  preserve  the 
Greek  learning.  Through  them  it  was 
introduced  into  the  cloisters  in  Europe 
during  the  Middle  Ages.  The  modern 
period  in  the  history  of  mathematics 
begins  with  Descarte's  invention  of  an- 
alytical geometry.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  the  most  eminent  mathemati- 
cians, arranged  according  to  their 
nationality  or  period: 

(a)  Greek: 

Thales 

Pythagoras 

Aristotle 

Plato 

Euclid 

Archimedes 

Apollonius  of  Perga 

Hero  of  Alexandria 

Ptolemy 

Diophantus 

Pappus 

(b)  Arab: 

Al-Khuwarizmi 
Al-Battani 

Mohammed  Ben  Mohammed  Ben 
Yahaya 

(c)  Hindu: 

Aryabhatta 

Brahmagupta 

Bhaskara 

(d)  Persian: 

Omar  Khayyam 


158 


MATHEMATICS 


(e)  From  the  revival  of  Mathematics 

in  Europe  to  the  middle  of  the 

17th    century: 
Gerbert  [under  Sylvester  (Pope)] 
Fibonacci 
Peuerbach 
Regioniontanus 
Paccioli 
Tartaglia 
Cardan 
Viete 
Napier 

(f)  From  the  middle  of  the  17th  cen- 

tury to  the  present  time: 

Descartes 

Des  argues 

Cavalieri 

Pascal 

Fermat 

Wallis 

Leibnitz 

Newton 

Bernoulli,   Jakob 

Bernoulli,  Johann 

Bernoulli,  Niclaus 

Bernoulli,  Daniel 

Maclaurin 

Taylor 

Euler 


D'Alembert 

Monge 

Laplace 

Lagrange 

Legendre 

Fourier 

Gauss 

Poisson 

Poncelet 

Chasles 

Steiner 

Cauchy 

Mobius 

Lobachevsky 

Bol3'ai 

Abel 

Dirichlet 

Hamilton 

Jacoby 

Pliicker 

Grassmann 

Galois 

Cayley 

Eisenstein 

Weierstrass 

Riemann 

Smith,  H.  J.  S. 

Sylvester 

Clcbsch 

Lie,  Sophus 


Olliapt^r  14.    ABtr0n0mg 


Astronomy    is    the    science    which    treats    of    the    heavenly    bodies — 

y^L       the   sun    and   moon,    the    planets    and    their    satellites,    comets    and 

/— ^k      meteors,    the    stars    and    nebula.     Astronomy    is    usually    divided 

A       J^  into  many  branches ;  these  branches,  however,  are  not  distinct  and 

separate,  but  overlap   in   all   directions,   so  that  no  convenience   as 

regards  treatrnent  is  gained.     The  arrangement  of  the  articles  in  the  following 

lists  is  not  according  to  branches,  but  in  accordance  with  the  order  in  which  they 

may  be  conveniently  read. 

A  general  survey  of  astronomy,  together  with  a  short  history,  is  given  in 
the  general  article  Astronomy,  which,  therefore,  forms  a  suitable  introduction  to 
the  subject.  For  a  knowledge  of  a  few  of  the  elementary  terms  used  in 
astronomy,  see : 


Zenith 

Horizon 

Equator 

Ecliptic 

Pole 

Azimuth 

Altitude 

Declination 

Latitude  and  Longitude 

Parallels 

Meridian 

Diurnal  Motion 

Culmination 

1.  Astronomical.  Observations. 

Astronomical  observations  are  prin- 
cipally of  two  kinds:  To  determine 
distance,  linear  and  angular ;  and  to 
study  the  physical  conditions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies. 

(a)  Instruments: 

Telescope 

Sextant 

Transit  Instrument 

Meridian  Circle 

Equatorial 

Zenith  Telescope 

Micrometer 

Chronograph 


Chronometer 
Spectroscope 

(b)  Corrections  to  Astronomical  Ob- 

servations : 
Depression 
Parallax 
Refraction 
Twilight 
Aberration 

(c)  Time: 

The  determination  of  time  is  one  of 
the  most  important  problems  in  astron- 
omy, and  is  effected  by  observing  the 
time  of  .transit  across  the  meridian  of 
some  celestial  object.  For  the  deter- 
mination of  time,  read : 

Transit  Instrument 
Sextant 
Chronometer 
Ephemeris 
Equation  of  Time 
Various  ways  of  reckoning  time  have 
been  used  in  history.    Some  of  the  prin- 
cipal ways  used  by  the  ancients,  and 
also  those  used  at  present,  are  given  in 
the  following  articles: 
Period 
Chronology 


159 


160 


ASTROXOMY 


Calendar 

Hour 

Week 

Day 

Month 

Year 

International  Date  Line 

Prime  Meridian  Conference 

Time  Signals 

Time,  Standard 

2,  The  Solar  System. 

The  solar  system  consists  of  the  sun 
as  a  central  body,  around  which  re- 
volve the  planets  with  their  satellites, 
some  periodic  comets,  and  meteoric 
swarms.  In  addition  to  these  perma- 
nent members,  the  system  is  occasion- 
ally visited  by  other  comets,  wliich 
move  in  parabolic  orbits.  As  a  histori- 
cal inti-oduction,  read: 

Ptolemaic  System 

Copernican  System 

Of  the  members  of  the  solar  system, 
the  planetary  system  is  of  most  imme- 
diate interest  to  us,  since  our  earth  is  a 
member  of  this  system.  The  sun  and 
the  planets,  with  their  satellites  and 
their  interrelations,  are  treated  in  the 
following  articles : 

Sun 

Planets 

Solar  System 

Planetoids 

Satellites 

Vulcan 

Mercury 

Venus 

Earth 

Mars 

Jupiter 

Saturn 

Uranus 

Neptune 


very   small   in 
great   extent. 


Eros 

Moon 

Gravitation 

Parallax 

Lunar  Theory 

Nutation 

Perturbations 

Precession 

Tides 

Latitude,  Variation  of 

Seasons 

Orbit 

Elements 

Eclipse 

Comets  are  usually 
mass,  though  this  has 
Tiiey  move  in  very  eccentric  orbits 
about  the  sun,  and  the  planes  of  their 
orbits  present  a  great  variety.  The 
constituent  parts  and  physical  charac- 
teristics, the  mass,  the  spectra,  the 
number,  discoveries,  the  captive  theor^y, 
and  origin  of  comets  are  treated  in  the 
article  Comet. 

Meteors  are  masses  of  stone  or  iron, 
which  sometimes  are  seen  to  fall  to  the 
earth  from  the  sky.  The  circumstances 
of  the  fall,  the  meteoric  showers,  the 
probable  cause,  the  matter,  path,  and 
number  of  meteors  are  treated  in  the 
articles : 

Meteors 

Aerolite 

3.  The  Stars. 

These  bodies  are  usually  called  fixed 
stars,  owing  to  the  idea  of  the  ancients 
that  they  were  without  motion.  Tlie 
fixity  is,  however,  now  disproved,  and 
observations  with  the  spectroscope 
show  tiiat  they  are  moving  with  veloci- 
ties comparable  to  those  of  bodies  be- 
longing to  tlie  solar  system.    Owing  to 


ASTRONOMY 


161 


their  immense  distance,  they  appear, 
however,  to  keep  their  relative  posi- 
tions and  configurations  unchanged. 
This  is  only  apparent,  and  there  are 
stars  whose  displacement  amounts  to 
as  much  as  1"  a  year.  In  magnitude 
and  physical  condition,  the  stars  are 
comparable  with  our  sun,  and  many  of 
them  greatly  exceed  our  sun  in  bright- 
ness and  magnitude.  The  designation, 
magnitude,  nature,  and  number  of 
stars,  the  constellations,  stellar  paral- 
lax, proper  motion,  spectra,  photome- 
try, variable  stars,  double  and  multiple 
stars,  binary  stars,  etc.,  are  treated  in 
the  following  articles: 

Star 

Constellation 

Culmination 

Pole  Star 

Zodiac 

Galaxy 

Parallax 

Astro-Photography 

The  Nebul.e  are  faintly  shining 
cloudlike  patches  of  matter  in  the  sky, 
scattered  among  the  stars.  They  are 
supposed  to  be  stars  under  formation. 
The  nature,  forms,  and  magnitudes  of 
nebulfe,  the  spectra,  distribution,  dis- 
tance, etc.,  are  treated  in  the  article 
Nebula. 

4.  Astronomical  Observatories 
are  buildings  where  the  instruments 
and  machinery  necessary  for  the  obser- 
vation of  the  heavenly  bodies  are  kept. 
The  equipment,  location,  etc.,  of  an  ob- 
servatory, together  with  a  description 
of  some  of  the  largest  observatories  in 
the  world,  are  treated  in  the  following 
articles : 

Observatory 

Lick  Observatory 


Naval  Observatory 
Pulkova  Observatory 
Yerkcs  Observatory 

5.  Cosmogony  deals  with  the  the- 
ory of  operations  by  which  the  present 
condition  of  the  universe  came  about. 
Various  systems  of  cosmogony  have 
prevailed  at  different  times.  These  are 
given  in  the  articles : 

Cosmogony 
Nebulas 

6.  Astrology  deals  with  the  sup- 
posed influence  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
upon  human  affairs  and  the  drawing 
up  horoscopes.  Astrology  was  the  fore- 
runner of  astronomy,  and  for  centuries 
astronomical  observations  were  made 
mainly  to  supply  data  for  astrology. 
See  Astrology. 

7.  Biography. 

Observational  astronomy  dates  back 
to  the  Chinese  and  Chaldaeans,  but  the 
first  real  attempt  to  explain  the  move- 
ments of  the  heavenly  bodies  is  due  to 
the  Greeks.  The  ideas  of  the  Greeks 
held  sway  till  Copernicus  substi- 
tuted a  more  harmonious  system. 
Gravitational  astronomy  begins  with 
Newton,  who  made  it  possible  to  ex- 
plain the  movements  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  while  Galileo's  invention  of  the 
telescope  gave  a  means  of  finding  out 
what  they  are  in  themselves.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  list  of  the  most  prominent 
contributors  to  astronomy: 

Hipparchus 

Ptolemy 

Brahe 

Kepler 

Galileo 

Newton 

Bradley 


162 


ASTRONOMY 


Halley 

Roemer 

Cassini,  Jacques 

Cassini,  G.  D. 

Flamsteed 

Herschel,  Sir  William 

Herschel,  Sir  J.  F.  W. 

Laplace 

Bessel 

Bode 

Delambre 

Olbers 

Piazzi 

Pond 


Bailey 

Hansen 

Struvc,  F.  G.  W. 

Encke 

Leverrier 

Adams,  J.  C. 

Airy 

Nichol 

Rosse 

Rutherford 

Stnive,  Otto 

Galle 

Huggins 

Lockyer 


Ollfapt^r  15.    flfyatra 


IN  unclcrtciking  systematic  rca(lin<r  in  any  particular  science,  it  is  well  at 
the  outset  to  realize  the  province  and  limitations  of  tliat  science,  as  tliey 
have  been  determined  and  observed  in  the  past  by  its  devotees,  and  what, 
if  there  have  been  changes,  is  tlie  modern  conception  of  the  scope  of  the 
particular  department  of  knowledge  so  known.  With  this  especial 
object,  the  article  on  Physics  has  been  written,  and  serves  to  introduce 
the  reader  to  the  subject,  as  discussed  in  more  detail  under  the  broad  subdivisions 
of  Acoustics,  Electricity,  Heat,  Light,  Mechanics,  and  Magnetism. 
Taking  up  these  subjects  separately,  we  shall  find  in  each  case  the  general  article 
referred  to,  and  such  minor  articles  as  are  demanded. 


1.  Acoustics. 

Dealing  with  theoretical  questions, 
the  more  important  topics  on  the  na- 
ture and  theory  of  sound  are  included 
in  the  following  list: 

Acoustics 

Section  Origins  under  Music 

Diatonic  Scale 

Phonetics 

Resonance 

Resonator 

Node 

For  special  purposes  and  investiga- 
tion dealing  with  the  production  and 
propagation  of  sound  waves,  there  has 
been  devised  much  interesting  appa- 
ratus, certain  forms  of  which,  as  the 
telephone,  phonograph,  megaphone, 
etc.,  have  found  their  way  into  univer- 
sal application.     See: 

Siren 

Sp'eaking  Trumpet 

Megaphone 

Ear-Trumpet 

Audiometer 

Audi  phone 

Acoumeter 

Phonograph 

Chladni  Figures 

Tuning-Fork 

Organ 


2.  Electricity. 

To  supplement  the  general  article 
Electricity,  it  is  desirable  to  consult 
articles  dealing  with  the  generation  of 
the  current,  as  Dynamo-Electric 
Machinery,  the  Voltaic  Cell,  the 
Dry  Pile,  Thermo-Electricity,  and 
also  study  the  effects  of  Induction 
and  self  induction.  We  can  learn  how 
the  magnetic  strength  of  a  solenoid  is 
influenced  by  the  number  of  Ampere 
Turns,  and  how  the  Capacity  of  a 
Condenser  may  vary  with  changes  of 
conditions.  As  supplemental,  then,  to 
the  article  on  electricity,  the  following 
articles  may  be  cited: 

(a)  Fundamental  Phenomena: 

Current 
Conductor 
Resistance 
Shunt 

Electrostatics  (under  Electricity  ) 
Condenser 
Ampere  Turns 
Solenoid 
Induction 

Induced  Electric   Currents    (un- 
der Electricity) 
Foucault  Currents 

(b)  Electrical  Units: 

Electrical  Units 


163 


164 


PHYSICS 


Ampere 

Volt 

Ohm 

Henry 

Farad 

Coulomb 

Watt 

(c)   Electrostatic  Apparatus : 
Electrophorus 
Electrical  Machine 
Electroscope 

Ley  den  Jar  (under  Condenser) 
Barometric  Light 
Brush 
Elmo's  Fire,  Saint 

{d)  Measuring  Instruments: 
Galvanometer 
Ammeter 
Voltmeter 
Voltameter 
Wheatstone's  Bridge 
Electrometer 
Electric  Meters 
Induction  Balance 

(e)  Discharge  in  Gases  or  in  Vacuo: 

Anode 

Discharge   through    Gases    (un- 
der Electricity) 
Geissler's  Tubes 
Crookcs  Tube 
X-Rays 

(f)  Electric  Currents: 

Galvanic  Battery 
Voltaic  Cell  or  Battery 
Dry  Pile 
Storage  Battery 
Thermo-Electricity 
Tiiomson  Effect 

3.  Heat. 

Following  the  arrangement  already 
specified  for  the  study  of  heat,  refer- 
ence should  be  made  to  Caloeimetuy 


to  ascertain  how  the  amount  of  heat 
possessed  by  various  bodies  is  measured, 
and  to  Thermometry  to  learn  how  tlie 
temperature  or  degree  of  heat  is  deter- 
mined. Thermodynamics  enables  us 
to  consider  the  relation  between  heat 
and  work.     See: 

Heat 

Calorimetry 

Thermometiy 

Diathermancy 

Regelation 

Radiation 

Thermodynamics 

Spheroidal  State 

Of  a  more  practical  character,  are 
those  articles  involving  the  considera- 
tion of  methods  and  apparatus,  such 
as  those  which  discuss  the  LiauEFAC- 
TioN  OF  Gases  and  Freezing  Mix- 
tures. A  list  of  this  kind  would  in- 
clude : 

Crj'ophorus 

Freezing  Point 

Freezing-Mixtures 

Liquefaction  of  Gases 

Melting-Point 

Boiling-Point 

Critical  Point 

Refrigeration 

Zero 

Thermometer 

Pyrometer 

Thermoscope 

Microtasimeter 

Radiometer 

Bolometer 

Hygrometer 

Safety-Lamp 

Radioactivity  is  a  comparatively 
new  subject,  but  around  an  article  on 
that  subject  may  be  grouped  sucli  arti- 
cles as  Radium,  Polonium,  and  Ura- 


PHYSICS 


165 


NiiiM  Rays,  wliich  deal  with  substances 
that  manifest  this  pecuhar  property. 

4.  Magnetism. 

Complete  articles  on  Magnetism  in 
general  and  on  Magnetism,  Ter- 
restrial, with  charts,  leave  but  little 
to  be  said  in  addition.  Diamagxetism 
is  a  quality  that  needs  further  ex- 
planation, wjiile  Aclinic  and  Agonic 
Lines  are  expounded  in  separate  arti- 
cles, as  are  Declination  and  Inclina- 
tion. The  instruments  used  in  study- 
ing magnetism,  and  especially  the 
ship's  compass,  with  its  important  ad- 
justments, are  also  the  subjects  of 
further  description.  The  articles  that 
may  be  consulted  advantageously  are: 

Magnetism 

Magnetism  Terrestrial 

Diamagnetism 

Declination 

Inclination 

Magnetometer 

Compass 

Astatic  Needle 

Dipping-Needle 

Declination  Needle 

Armature 

5.  Light. 

In  the  study  of  optics,  there  are 
numerous  opportunities  to  branch  off 
from  a  general  treatment  and  carry  on 
independent  investigation  in  a  particu- 
lar field.  Starting  with  the  motion  of 
the  ether,  known  as  light,  we  are  able 
to  study  its  Velocity  and  also  the 
intensity.  For  the  latter,  photometers 
are  employed,  and  the  subject  of  Pho- 
tometry presents  a  record  of  many 
different  instruments  and  methods.  By 
reason  of  its  wave  motion  when  Dif- 
fraction and  Interference  take  place 
Princes  are  formed,  and  also  there  re- 


sults the  phenomenon  known  as  colors 
of  thin  plates.  This  principle  of  in- 
terference is  the  basis  of  one  process 
of  Color  Photography;  several  pro- 
cesses are  described  under  that  title. 
In  fact,  numerous  other  examples  could 
be  cited,  but  reference  to  the  following 
list  will  clearly  indicate  the  extent  of 
the  range  of  subjects: 
(a)  Light: 
Light 

Velocity  of  Light 
Ether 

Diffraction  and  Diffraction  Grat- 
ings • 

Interference 

Fringes 

Colors    of    Thin    Plates    (under 
Light) 

Newton's  Rings 

Photometry 

Reflection 

Caustic 

Refraction 

Polarization 

Prism 

Dispersion 

Color 

Complementary  Colors 

Achromatism 

Rainbow 

Lens 

Foci 

Aberration,  Chromatic 

Aberration,  Spherical 

Spectroscopy 

Fluorescence 

Phosphorescence 

Zeeman  Effect 

Mirage 

Fata   Morgana 
(b)   Optical  Instruments: 

Telescope 

Opera  Glass 


166 


PHYSICS 


Field  Glass 
Object-Glass 
Eyepiece 
Field  of  View 
Microscope 
Solar  Microscope 
Brownian  ^Movements 
Camera  Lucida 
Camera  Obscura 
Aplanatic  Lens 
Spectroscope 
Stereoscope 
Magic  Lantern 
Kinetoscope 
Dissolving  Views 
Diaphragm 
Polariscope 
Nicol  Prism 
Anah'zcr 
Polar  Clock 
Kaleidoscope 
Chromatrope 
Zoetrope 
Fluoroscope 
Diaphanoscope 
Cyanometcr 
Dioptometcr 
Magic  ^lirror  of  Japan 
(c)   Photographic  Processes: 
Photograpliy 
Photo-Chemistry 
Negative 
Ambrotypc 

Daguerreotype  Process 
Copying 

Color  Photography 
Photo-Engraving 
Calotypo  Proccess 
Cyanotypc  Process 
Ferrotype 
Fothcrgill  Process 
Photolitiiography      (under     Li 

thograpliy) 
Gelatin  Process 


6.  Matter  and  Mechanics. 

Under  this  head,  we  may  include  a 
consideration  of  matter,  including  its 
general  properties  and  the  theories  ad- 
vanced to  explain  it,  as-  well  as  the 
questions  concerned  with  the  motion  of 
matter,  and  the  methods  and  units  em- 
ployed to  measure  this  motion.  Con- 
sidering the  first  subdivision,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  concern  ourselves  with  the 
following  titles : 

Matter 

Vortex 

Molecules 

Inertia 

Porosity 

Ductility 

Elasticity 

Flexure 

Viscosity 

Gases,  General  Pi'operties  of 

Effusion 

Cohesion 

Adhesion  , 

The  science  of  mechanics  deals  with 
the  motion  of  matter.  After  reading 
the  fundamental  article  ^Mechanics, 
the  reader  will  be  prepared  to  appre- 
ciate the  associated  articles  as  well  as 
those  dealing  with  the  various  stages  of 
applied  mechanics.  Included  in  the 
former  class,  are  the  following: 

Mechanics 

Dynamics 

Kinetics 

Kinematics 

Statics 

l\Ionient 

IMomentum 

Velocity 

Acceleration 

Force 

Potential 


PHYSICS 


167 


Central  Forces 
Couple 

Energetics 

Centre  of  Gravity 
"      "    Gyration 
"      "    Inertia 
"      "    Oscillation 
"      "    Percussion 
"      "    Pressure 

'Aerostatics 

Aerodynamics 

Pneumatics 

Hydrostatics 

Hydrodynamics 

Vortex 

Waves 

Stability 

Impact 

Gravitation 

Falling  Bodies 

Vector 

Capillarity 

Mechanical  Powers 

Inclined  Plane 

Lever 

Wheel  and  Axle 

Pulley 

Pendulum 

Projectiles,  Motion  of 

In  order  to  measure  motion  and  its 
effect,  there  are  required  systems  of 
units,  and  these  are  usually  arranged 
on  such  a  basis  that  they  are  parts  of 
a  symmetrical  system,  such  as  the  C. 
G.  S.  (Centimeter,  Gramme,  Second) 
system.  This  matter  is  fully  ex- 
plained in  the  following  articles: 

C.  G.  S. 

Mechanical  Units 

Dimensions 

Dyne 

Erg 

Foot-Pound 

Joule 


Watt 

Kilowatt 

Horse-Power 

For  the  measurement  and  study  of 
matter  and  its  motion  and  other  prop- 
erties, numerous  impoi-tant  pieces  of 
physical  apparatus  have  been  devised. 
Thus,  to  measure  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere,  or  a  gas,  we  have  the  Bar- 
ometer and  tiie  Manometer.  To  re- 
move the  air  from  a  vessel,  the  Air 
Pump  is  applied.  For  the  linear  meas- 
ures, we  have  scales  constructed  with 
the  Dividing  Engine  and  compared 
with  standards  on  the  Comparator. 
Instruments  of  such  nature  are  includ- 
ed in  the  following  list : 

Air  Pump 

Barometer 

Barometer,  Water 

Aneroid 

Manometer 

Magdeburg  Hemispheres 

Specific  Gravity 

Hydrometer 

Joll}'  Balance 

Balance 

Spring  Balance 

Weighing  ^Machine 

Torsion  Balance 

Weights  and  iMeasures 

]\Ietric  System 

Dividing  Engine 

Comparator 

Atwood's  Machine 

Barker's  Mill 

Hero's  Fountain 

7.  Biographies  of  Physicists. 

Some  of  the  greatest  achievements 
in  that  branch  of  science  which  is  now 
known  as  Physics  have  been  the  work 
of  philosophers  who  have  also  accom- 
plished much  in  other  fields,  and  con- 


168 


PHYSICS 


sequently  it  is  impossible,  particularly 
in  the  case  of  ancient  and  medieval 
scientists,  to  term  them  physicists,  and 
include  them  in  such  a  list.  Also,  in 
modern  times,  the  work  of  the  chemist, 
of  the  engineer,  of  the  meteorologist, 
of  the  astronomer,  and  of  other  scien- 
tific workers,  closely  approaches  or  ac- 
tually transgresses  the  limits  which  the 
physicist  has  set  for  himself.  There- 
fore, the  following  list  does  not  in- 
clude all  the  principal  workers,  but  a 
certain  number  who  primarily  are  dis- 
tinguished for  their  work  in  physics. 

Abney,  W.  de  W. 

Amici,  G.  B. 

Amontons,  G. 

Ampere,  A.  M. 

Arago,  D.  F. 

Archimedes 

Atwood,  George 

Bache,  Alex.  D. 

Bacon,  Roger 

Becquerel,  A.  C. 

Becquerel,  A.  E. 

Becquerel,  A.  H. 

Bell,  A.  G. 

Biot,  Jean  B. 

Boyle,  Robert 

Brewster,  Sir  D. 

Bunsen,  R.  W. 

Cailletet,  L.  P. 

Carhart,  H.  S. 

Carnot,  N.  L.  S. 

Cavendish,  H. 

Chladni,  E.  F.  F. 

Cluusius,  R.  J.  E. 

Coulomb,  C.  A. 

Dc  la  Rive,  A.  A. 

DoUond,  John 

Dove,  H.  W. 

Edison,  T.  A. 

Ewing,  J.  A. 

Fahrenheit,  G.  D. 


Faraday,  M. 
Ferrari,  G. 
Fleming,  J.  A. 
Forbes,  J.  D. 
Foucault,  J.  B.  L. 
Fraunhofer,  Joseph  von 
Fresnel,  A.  J. 
Galvani,  L. 
Gauss,  Iv.  F. 
Gay-Lussac,  J.  L. 
Geissler,  H. 
Gilbert,  W. 
Glazebrook,  R.  T. 
Gray,   Elisha 
Grove,  Sir  W.  R. 
Guericke,  O.  von 
Haidinger,  W.  von 
Halley,  E. 
Hauksbee,  F. 
Helmholtz,  H.  von 
Henry,  Joseph 
Hero  of  Alexandria 
Herschel,  Sir  W. 
Hertz,  H. 
Hittorf,  J.  W. 
HofF,  J.  H.  van't 
Holtz,  W. 
Hopkinson,  J. 
Hu^'gens,  C. 
Jenkin,  H.  C.  F. 
Jolly,  P.  von 
Joule,  J.  P. 
Katcr,   H. 
Kirchhoff,  G.  R. 
Kohlrausch,  F. 
Kundt,  A. 
Laplace,  P.  S.  de 
Leslie,  Sir  J. 
Lodge,  Sir  O.  J. 
IMagnus,  H.  G. 
Mains,  E.  L. 
Mariotte,  E. 
Mascart,  E.  E.  N. 
Maxwell,  J.  C. 


PHYSICS 


1G9 


Mayer,  A.  M. 
Maj^er,  J.  R.-von 
Mendcnhall,  T.  C. 
Michelson,  A.  A. 
Morse,  S.  F.  B. 
Newton,  Sir  Isaac 
Nichols,  E.  L. 
Oersted,  H.  C. 
Oiim,  G.  S. 
Ostwald,  W. 
Papin,  D. 
Pictet,  R. 
Plateau,  J.  A.  F. 
Pupin,  M.  I. 
Quincke,  G.  H. 
Rankine,  W.  J.  M. 
Rayleigh,  J.  W.  S. 
Reaumur,  R.  A.  F.  de 
Regnault,  H.  V. 
Roentgen,  W.  K. 
Rowland,  H.  A. 
Ruhmkorff,  H.  D. 
Sabine,  Sir  E. 


Siemens,  Sir  W. 
Somerville,  Mary 
Steinheil,  K.  A. 
Stevin,  S. 
Stokes,  Sir  G.  G. 
Tait,  P.  G. 
Tesla,  N. 
Thompson,  S.  P. 
Thomson,  J.  J. 
Thomson,  William 
Torricelli,  E. 
Trowbridge,  J. 
Tyndall,  J. 
Violle,  J. 
Volta,  A. 
Watt,  J. 
Weber,  W. 

Wheatstone,   Sir  Charles 
Wiedemann,   G. 
Wilde,  H. 
Woodward,  R.  S. 
Wroblewski,  Z.  F. 
Young,  T, 


OII)apt^r  Ifi.    QHtrmtetrij 


THE  importance,  for  practically  everj'body,  of  acquiring  a  knowledge 
of  chemistry  hardly  needs  to  be  emphasized.  Chemical  facts  and 
principles  are  involved,  to  a  considerable  extent,  in  every  science 
and  in  every  branch  of  industry,  and  chemical  questions  come  up 
often  in  nearly  every  sphere  of  human  activitv'. 
In  the  New  International  Encyclopad'M,  the  science  and  applications  of 
chemistry  are  treated  in  a  large  number  of  articles,  many  of  which  were  written 
so  as  to  serve  a  double  purpose :  fii'st,  to  suppl}'  information  on  their  special 
topics,  without  reference  to  chemical  science  as  a  whole,  or  to  any  other  chemical 
topic ;  secondly,  to  form  integral  parts  of  an  exposition  of  chemistry,  for  those 
who  may  desire  to  use  the  Encyclopaedia  for  the  acquisition  of  a  general  knowledge 
of  the  subject.  To  serve  the  second  purpose,  they  were  written  from  a  single 
viewpoint — on  the  whole  that  of  the  German  school  of  physical  chemistry,  now 
all  but  universally  recognized  as  the  best  founded  and  most  fruitful  mode  of 
viewing  chemical  phenomena.  To  serve  the  first  purpose,  which  is  all-important 
in  a  work  of  reference,  each  article  (with  few  unavoidable  exceptions),  besides 
being  written  in  very  simple  terms,  is  supplied  with  all  the  information  that  is 
necessary  to  an  understanding  of  the  subject  it  treats,  so  that,  in  by  far  most 
of  the  articles,  no  preliminary  chemical  knowledge  is  pre-supposed.  But  even 
in  those  articles  in  which  the  assumption  of  some  preliminary  knowledge  could  not, 
for  obvious  reasons,  be  avoided,  no  information  was  pre-supposed  beyond  what 
may  be  readil_y  found  in  the  Encyclopa?dia  itself.  Furthermore,  in  most  of  the 
articles,  the  more  essential  information  is  concentrated  in  the  opening  paragraphs, 
the  more  technical  and  less  essential  in  later  parts  of  the  article :  so  that  glancing 
over  the  first  paragraph  alone  may  be  sufficient  for  many  purposes.  Of  course, 
if  the  end  in  view  be  the  acquisition  of  a  general  systematic  knowledge  of 
chemistry,  the  articles  should  be  read  entirely  and  carefully,  the  leading  points 
being  very  briefly  noted  down,  so  as  to  afford,  at  any  time  of  the  reading,  a  clear 
retrospect  over  the  ground  covered. 

For  purposes  of  systematic  study,  the  chemical  articles  in  the  Encyclojia'dia 
may  be  grouped  as  follows:  1,  Those  dealing  with  general  fundamental  prin- 
ciples ;  2,  those  dealing  with  the  principal  classes  of  carbon  compounds ;  3,  those 
dealing  with  the  theories  of  physical  chemistry;  4,  those  articles,  or  sections  of 
articles,  dealing  with  the  history  of  chemistry;  5,  articles  on  the  chemical  ele- 
ments ;  6,  articles  on  the  principal  compounds  occurring  in  the  living  organism ; 
7,  articles  on  other  substances,  inorganic  and  organic,  presenting  either  theo- 
retical or  practical  interest. 

The    order   of   this    classification    is  stage,   a   knowledge   of   at   least   some 

based    on    the    relative    importance,    to  of  the   principles   of  chemistry   ought 

the   general   reader,   of   ])rinciplcs   and  to    be    much    more    valuable    ihan    a 

facts.      Siiould    the    course    of    syste-  knowledge    of    some    data    concen>Jng 

matic  reading  be  interrupted  at  some  individual   compounds,   such   as   would 

170 


CHEMISTRY 


171 


be  acquired  if,  following  the  usual  or- 
der of  chemical  studies  in  schools,  the 
course"  should  be  commenced  by  a  peru- 
sal of  the  descriptive  articles  on  the 
elements  and  their  principal  inorganic 
compounds. 

1.  Fundamental      Principles      and 
Phenomena. 

Chemistry 
Analysis,  Chemical 
Atomic  Weights 
Avogadro's  Rule 
IMoleculcs 
Periodic  Law 
Spectrum  Analysis 
Reaction,  Chemical 
Decomposition 
Dissociation 
Catalytic  Action 
Nascent  State 
Combustion 
Spontaneous   Combustion 

2.  Cakbon  Compounds. 

The  compounds  of  carbon,  number- 
ing roughly  100,000,  form  the  sub- 
ject of  organic  chemistry,  one  of  the 
most  extensive  and  important  branches 
of  modern  chemical  science.  In  this 
branch,  the  atomic  and  other  theories 
have  found  a  field  for  some  of  their 
most  useful  applications ;  and  it  is, 
therefoi'c,  advisable  to  acquire  some 
knowledge  of  it  at  an  early  stage  in 
chemical  reading.  The  following  is  a 
list  of  the  principal  articles  dealing 
with  this  branch: 

Carbon  Compounds 

Stereo-Chemistry 

Hydrocarbons 

Alcohols 

iMercaptans 

Ethers 


Aldehj'des 

Ketones 

Acids 

Amines 

Amides 

Ureas 

Carbohydrates 

Phenols 

Diazo-Compounds 

Organo-Metallic  Bodies 

Alkaloids 

3.  PHYsici\.L  Chemistry. 

Within  recent  3'ears,  physical  chem- 
istry has  attained  a  degree  of  impor- 
tance which  makes  some  knowledge  of 
it  indispensable,  not  only  to  the  pro- 
fessional chemist,  but  also  to  the  physi- 
cist, physiologist,  botanist,  engineer, — 
in  fact  to  all  those  engaged  in  work  of 
any  of  the  pure  and  applied  sciences. 
It  is  believed  that  this  justified  the  in- 
troduction in  the  Encyclopaedia  of  a 
somewhat  extensive,  though  popular, 
treatment  of  the  subject.  Following 
is  a  list  of  the  principal  articles,  in  the 
order  in  which  it  would  seem  advisable 
to  read  them: 

Avogadro's  Rule 

Boiling-Point 

Freezing-Point 

Melting-Point 

Freezing   INIixtures 

Solution 

Dissociation 

Diffusion 

Colloids 

Reaction,  Chemical 

Thermo-Cheniistry 

Electro-Chemistry,  General 

Photo-Chemistry 

Gases   (introductory  section) 

Critical  Point 

Evaporation 


172 


CHEMISTRY 


Distillation 

Sublimation 

Radioactivity 

4.  History  of  Chemistey. 

The  history  of  a  great  science,  if 
studied  after  some  knowledge  of  the 
principles  and  problems  of  the  science 
has  been  acquired,  has  in  itself  a  fas- 
cination for  almost  every  mind.  But, 
in  the  case  of  chemistry,  many  authori- 
ties liave  maintained  that  a  knowledge 
of  the  history  is  not  merely  interest- 
ing, but  absolutely  indispensable  to  a 
thorough  understanding  of  the  science 
itself.  In  the  Encyclopaedia,  a  simple 
presentation  of  the  development  of 
chemical  thought,  and  the  gradual 
elimination  of  past  errors  of  principle 
and  method,  will  be  found  in  the  gen- 
eral article  Chemistry.  Further  his- 
torical information  will  be  found  in  the 
article  Alchemy,  in  the  articles  on 
physical  chemistry,  in  those  describing 
the  elements  and  many  chemical  com- 
pounds, and  especially  in  the  biogra- 
phies of  celebrated  chemists.  Follow- 
ing is  a  list  of  some  of  the  best-known 
names  in  the  history  of  chemistry : 

Helmont,  J.  B.  van 

Bechcr,  J.  J. 

Stahl,  G.  E. 

Black,  J. 

Priestley,  J. 

Cavendish,  H. 

Lavoisier,  A.  L. 

Klaproth,  M.  II. 

Dalton,  J. 

Wollaston,  W.  H. 

Berzelius,  J.  J. 

Davy,  H. 

Berthollet,   C. 

Bergman,   T.   0. 

Avogadro,  A. 


Gay-Lussac,  J.  L. 

INIitscherlich,   E. 

Liebig,  J. 

Wohler,  F. 

Chevreul,  M.  E. 

Dumas,  J.  B. 

Laurent,  A. 

Gerhardt,  K.  F. 

Gmelin,  L. 

Sainte-Claire  Deville,  H.  E. 

Cannizzaro,  S. 

Graham,  T. 

Kolbe,  H. 

Bunsen,  R.  W. 

Roscoe,  H.  E. 

Berthelot,  P.  E.  M. 

Wurtz,  C.  A. 

Hofmann,  A.  W. 

Regnault,  H.  V. 

Pasteur,  L. 

]Mendcleeff,  D. 

Schorlemmer,  C. 

Baeyer,  A. 

Fischer,  E. 

Hoff,  J.  H.  van't 

Ostwald,  W. 

Nernst,  W. 

Arrhenius,  S. 

Crookes,  W. 

Dewar,  J. 

5.  The  Chemical  Elements. 

The  articles  on  the  chemical  elements 
will  be  found  to  contain  descriptions, 
not  only  of  the  elements  themselves, 
but  also  of  their  principal  compounds, 
so  that  each  article  forms  a  chapter  of 
inorganic  chemistry.  Following  is  a 
list  of  some  of  the  principal  articles  in 
a  recognized  order  of  arrangement : 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 

Nitrogen 

Carbon 


CHEMISTRY                                     173 

Clilorine 

LiuM,   Neon,   Krypton,   and  Xenon, 

Bromine 

and    of    the    radioactive    elements,    in- 

Iodine 

cluding   Radium,    Polonium,    Actin- 

Fluorine 

ium,   and  Thorium,   will  be  found  in 

Sodium 

their  proper  places.     A  list  of  the  ele- 

Potassium 

ments,  with  their  chemical  symbols  and 

Lithium 

atomic  weights,  will  be  found  in  the 

Magnesium 

article  Atomic  Weights. 

Calcium 
Strontium 

6.  Compounds  Occurring  in  Living 

Barium 

Organisms. 

Zinc 

Physiological   chemistry    deals   with 

Cadmium 

the  individual  compounds  forming  the 

Mercury 

chemical   ingredients   of  the   materials 

Boron 

of   which   living   organisms   and  their 

Aluminium 

products    (e.   g.,  milk)   are  made  up. 

Silicon 

A    knowledge    of    the    chemical    and 

Tin 

physical  properties  of  those  compounds 

Lead 

is  indispensable  in  the  study  of  chem- 

Zirconium 

ical  physiology,  and  hence  of  physi- 

Thorium 

ology  in  general.     The  following  is  a 

Phosphorus 

list  of  the  more  important  physiologi- 

Arsenic 

cal   compounds    described   under   their 

Antimony 

names  in  the  Encycloptedia : 

Bismuth 

Albumen 

Sulphur 

Allantoin 

Selenium 

Carbohydrates 

Tellurium 

Cellulose 

Cliromium 

Carnin 

Molybdenum 

Casein 

Tungsten 

Cerebrin 

Uranium 

Chitin 

Manganese 

Cystin 

Iron 

Elastin 

Cobalt 

Fats 

Nickel 

Fibrin 

Platinum 

Gelatin 

Palladium 

Globulins 

Copper 

Glycogen 

Silver 

Guanin 

Gold 

Xanthin 

Articles  on  the  rest 

of  the  elements, 

Hypoxanthin 

including    the    newly 

found    constitu- 

Inosite 

ents  of  the  atmosphere,  Argon,   He- 

Keratin 

174 


CHEMISTRY 


Kreatin 

Kreatinin 

Legumin 

Leucin 

Ossein 

Proteins 

Starch 

Syntonin 

Taurin 

Urea 

Uric  Acid 

Hfematin 

Hemoglobin 

7.  Other    Important    Articles    on 
Chemical  Subjects. 

(a)  Metallic  Alloys: 

Alloy 
Amalgam 
Babbitt  Metal 
Brass 

Britannia  Metal 
Bronze 

Fusible  Metal 
German  Silver 
Phosphor-Bronze 
Pewter 
Pinchbeck 
Platiniridium 
Spence's  Metal 

(b)  Bases: 

The  inorganic  bases,  i.  e.,  metallic 
oxides  and  hydroxides,  arc  mostly  de- 
scribed in  connection  with  the  metallic 
elements.  Important  special  articles 
are: 

Ammonia 

Lime 

Soda 

The  articles  on  organic  bases  in- 
clude : 

ATiiines 

Ethylamine 


Trimethylamine 

Aniline 

Pyridine 

Quinoline 

Alkaloids 

Ptomaines 

The  article  Alkaloids  contains  a 
list  of  the  important  members  of  this 
class  of  substances,  with  their  princi- 
pal characteristics.  More  extensive 
descriptions  are  given  in  the  special 
articles  on  all  the  more  important  al- 
kaloids. 

(c)   Acids: 

All  the  more  important  acids  are  de- 
scribed in  special  articles  under  their 
names.  Many  acids  of  secondary  im- 
portance are  mentioned  in  connection 
with  their  characteristic  elements.  Fol- 
lowing is  a  partial  list  of  important  ar- 
ticles on  acids : 

i.  General: 
Acids 
Phenols 

ii.   Inorganic: 

Sulphuric  Acid 

Hydrochloric  Acid 

Nitric   Acid 

Sulphuretcd  Hj'drogcn 

Phosphoric  Acid 

Hydrobromic   Acid 

Hydriodic  Acid 

Hydrofluoric  Acid 

Chloric   Acid 

Perchloric   Acid 

Hypochlorous  Acid 

Nitrous  Acid 

Hyponitrous  Acid 

Phospliorous  Acid 

Hypophosphorous  Acid 

Manganic      and      Permanganic 
Acids 


CHEMISTRY 


175 


iii.   Organic : 

Acetic  Acid 

Benzoic  Acid 

Butyric  Acid 

Caproic,    Caprylic,    and    Capric 

Acids 
Carbolic  Acid 
Carbonic-Acid  Gas 
Cinnamic  Acid 
Citric  Acid 
Cyanic  Acid 
Cyanuric  Acid 
Formic    Acid 

Fumaric  and  Maleic  Acids 
Gallic  Acid 
Glycin 

Hippuric  Acid 
Hydrocyanic  Acid 
Hydroferricyanic  Acid 
Hydroferrocyanic  Acid 
Lactic  Acid 
Laurie  Acid 
Malic  Acid 
Margaric  Acid 
Meconic  Acid 
Myristic  Acid 
CEnanthylic  Acid 
Oleic  Acid 
Oxalic  Acid 
Palmitic  Acid 
Picric  Acid 
Stearic  Acid 
Succinic  Acid 
Tannic  Acid 
Tartaric  Acid 
Uric  Acid 
Valeric  Acid 

An  important  "  homologous  series  " 
of  acids,  included  in  this  list,  is  consti- 
tuted by  the  following  so-called  "  fatty 
acids  " : 

Formic 
Acetic 


Butyric 

Valeric 

Caproic 

Caprylic 

Capric 

Senanthylic 

Laurie 

Myristic 

Palmitic 

Margaric 

Stearic 

Allied  to  the  last-named  is  oleic 
acid. 

The  acid  anhydrides  are  mostly 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
metalloid  elements. 

(d)  Salts: 

Salts  are  mostly  described  in  con- 
nection with  either  the  acids  or  the 
bases  combined  in  them.  The  follow- 
ing are  a  few  special  articles  on  salts: 

Alum 

Borax 

Cream  of  Tartar 

Epsom  Salt 

Glauber's  Salt 

Iodides 

Rochelle  Salt 

Ichthyol 

Saltpetre 

Soda 

Bases,  acids,  and  salts  constitute  to- 
gether the  so-called  "  electrolytes." 
Their  peculiar  behavior  in  aqueous 
solutions  has  led  to  the  formulation 
of  the  now  well-known  theory  of  elec- 
trolytic dissociation,  which  may  be 
found  treated  in  the  articles  Solution, 
Dissociation,  and  Acids. 

(e)  Hydrocarbons: 

Hydrocarbons 
Methane 


176 


CHEMISTRY 


Ethane 

Propane 

Butane  and  Isobutane 

Ethylene 

Acetylene 

Benzene 

Naphthalene 

Anthracene 

Further  information  concerning  hy- 
drocarbons may  be  found  in  articles 
on  such  products  as  oils  (volatile), 
paraffin,  ozokerite,  petroleum,  benzine, 
rubber,  gutta-percha,  gas  (illuminat- 
ing and  natural),  etc. 

(f)    Other  important  compounds: 

Water 

Hydrogen  Dioxide 

Ozone 

Alcohol 

IMethyl  Alcohol 

Glycerin 

Mannite 

Aldehyde 

Chloral 

Acetone 

Almonds,  Volatile  Oil  of 

Acrolein 

Acetone 

Ether 

Chloroform 

Iodoform 

Nitro-Benzcne 

Carbides 

Calcium  Carbide 

Carbon  Disulphide 

Carbonic  Oxide 

Cyanogen 

is)   Pigments,   Dyestuffs,  and  Allied 
Subjects: 

Paints 

Mineral  Colors 
Vegetable  Colors 


Dyeing 

Coal-Tar  Colors 

Tar 

Coal-Tar 

Indigo 

Alizarin 

Purpurin 

Aurin 

Rosolic  Acid 

Archil 

Arnotto 

Carmine 

Flavin 

Henna 

Indian  Yellow 

Lac  Dye  (under  Lac) 

Litmus 

Orcin 

Orcein 

Logwood 

Murexid 

Phenicin 

Quercitron 

Green 

Brunswick  Green 

Turkey  Red 

Cinnabar 

Blue 

Indigo 

Lampblack 

White  Lead 

A  list  of  the  widely  used  coal-tar 
colors  ("aniline  dve-stufFs "),  with 
their  principal  characteristics,  will  be 
found  in  the  article  Coal-Tar  Colors. 

(/i)    Waxes,  Fats,   Oils,  and  Soap: 

Waxes 

Beeswax 

Spermaceti 

Fats 

Palmitin 

Stearin 

Olein 


CHEMISTRY 


177 


Oils 

Almonds,  Expressed  Oil  of 

Almonds,  Volatile  Oil  of 

Canada  Balsam 

Castor   Oil 

Cod-Liver  Oil 

Croton  Oil 

Garlic,  Oil  of 

Grass-Oil 

Gurjiin  Balsam 

Lemon  Oil 

Menthol 

Petroleum 

Turpentine 

Wintergreen,  Oil  of 

Soap 
All  the  tj-pical  waxes  and  oils  are 
•described  in  the  general  articles  under 
these  names.  Paraffin,  which  is  some- 
times spoken  of  as  "  paraffin  wax,"  is 
described  in  an  article  under  its  own 
name. 

(j)   Gums  and  Resins: 
Gums 
Resins 
Amber 
Ammoniac 
Anime 
Arabin 
Copal 

Bassora  Gum 
Bdellium 


Catechu 

Dragon's  Blood 

Gambir 

Gamboge 

Gum  Arabic  (under  Gums) 

Kino 

Mucilage 

Olibanum 

Podophyllin 

Rosin 

Sandarac 

Scammony 

Camphor,  which  is  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  "  gum  camphor,"  is  described 
under  its  own  name.  "  British  gum," 
a  substitute  for  gum  arable,  is  de- 
scribed under  Dextrin. 

(j)   Explosives: 

See  chapter  on  Military  and  Naval 
Science . 

ik)   Wafers: 

Water 

Ice 

Distilled  Water 

Aerated  Waters 

Carbonated  or  Acidulous  Waters 

Chalybeate  Waters 

Mineral  Waters 

Selters  Water 

ApoUinaris  Water 


Qlliapt^r  ir^    ^Mbgij 


WHEN  we  turn  our  attention  to  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth, 
several  questions  naturally  arise:  Of  what  materials  is  it 
composed?  How  are  these  materials  arranged?  How 
was  this  arrangement  brought  about?  The  answers  to 
these  questions  give  a  clue  to  the  divisions  into  which 
geological  science  naturally  falls.  The  first  question  is  answered  by  a 
study  of  the  various  kinds  of  rocks.  This  is  the  science  of  Petrography 
or  Petrology.  The  answer  to  the  second  question  is  given  by  Struc- 
tural Geology.  But  we  find  that  one  form  of  structure,  stratification, 
is  so  widespread  and  complex  that  its  study  forms  a  separate  division, 
Stratigraphical  Geology,  sometimes  also  called  Historical  Geology,  because 
it  is  this  part  of  geology  that  deals  with  the  history  of  the  earth.  Finally,  the 
study  of  the  forces  at  work  in  the  formation  of  the  crust  is  Dynamic  Geology. 
This  division,  however,  should  be  studied  before  Structural  Geology,  because 
the  latter  will  be  better  understood  after  the  causes  of  the  various  structures  are 
known. 

There  are  two  other  aspects  of  geolog}',  which  take  the  point  of  view  of 
animate  nature.  One  is  Economic  Geology,  which  deals  with  those  parts  of  the 
earth's  crust  that  can  be  made  useful  to  man.  The  other  is  Paleontological 
Geology,  the  study  of  the  organic  remains,  which,  besides  revealing  the  history 
of  life  on  the  globe,  furnish  a  valuable  guide  in  the  identification  and  classification 
of  strata.  We  shall  now  guide  the  reader  to  the  articles  bearing  on  these  divisions 
of  the  science.    For  the  general  article,  see  Geology  . 


A,    Prtroln^y 


For  general  articles  on  this  subject,  Stauroscope 
see:                                                                     For  the  various  classes  of  rocks,  see: 

Geognosy  Plutonic  Rocks 

Petrology  Igneous  Rocks 

Crystallography  Aqueous  Rocks 

Mineralogy  Metamorphic  Rocks 

Lithogencsis  Crystalline  Rocks 

Cementation  Clastic  Rocks 

Petrographic  Province  Calcareous  Rocks 

Rock  Calcareous  Tufa 

Cleavage  Argillaceous  Rocks 

Dichroism  Arenaceous  Rocks 

Isomorphism  Rcsichial  Rocks 

Morphotropism  yEolian  Accumulations 

Conoscope  TufF 

Goniometer  Lava 

178 


GEOLOGY 


179 


For    the    more    important    specific 
kinds  of  rocks,  sec : 

1.  Stratified  or  Foliated  Crystal- 

line Rocks: 

Limestone 

Marble 

Dolomite 

Gypsum 

Hematite 

Limonite 

Flint 

Slate 

Quartzite 

Itacolumite 

Pyroxenite 

Hornblendite 

Eclogite 

Soapstone 

Pcridotite 

Mica  Schist 

Gneiss 

2.  Massive  Crystalline  Rocks  : 

Granite 

Porphyry 

Fclsite 

Rhyolite 

Syenite 

Trachyte 

Phonollte 

Pitchstone 

Obsidian 

Pcarlite 

Diorite 

Diabase 

Melaphyre 

Andesite 

Greenstone 

Basalt 


Gabbro 
Serpentine 

3.  Clastic  (Fragmental)  Rocks: 
(a)  Arenaceous: 
Soil 
Sand 
Gravel 

Conglomerate 
.    Breccia 
Sandstone 
Graywackc 

(h)   Argillaceous: 
Clay 

Fuller's  Earth 
Slate 

Boulder  Clay 
Shale 
Loam 
Loess 

(c)  Volcanic: 
TufF 
Basalt 

(d)  Rocks  of  Organic  Origin: 
Coral 

Limestone 

Chalk 

Marl 

Diatomaccous  Earth 

Guano 

Peat 

Lignite 

Coal 

Peat 

Petroleum 

Asphalt 

Graphite 

Bog-Iron  Ore 

Clay  Ironstone 


180 


GEOLOGY 


B.   ignamti:  ^^^^lln5lJ 


For  the    larger    movements  of 
earth's  crust,  see: 

Refrigeration  of  the  Earth 

Elevation  and  Subsidence 

Cataclysm 

Catastrophism 

Fault 

For  volcanic  action,  see : 
Volcano 
Crater 
Geyser 


the  Earthquake 

Seismograph 

For  changes  in  the  crust  due  to  ex- 
ternal and  various  causes,  see: 
Erosion 

Aqueous  Rocks 
Stratification 
Glacier 

Glacial  Period 
Lithogcnesis 
Metamorphism 
Petrifaction 


C.   f'tntrtural  (^rnlngij 


The  larger  and  more  general  forms 
of  geologic  structure  are  discussed  in 
the  articles: 

Crust  of  the  Earth 

Stratification 

Formation 

Bed 

Conformity 

Unconformity 

Within  this  general  structure  arc 
found  various  minor  structures,  gener- 
ally caused  by  some  form  of  intrusion. 
See: 

Concretionary   Structure 

Geodes 

Laccolite 

Batholite 

Dike 

Ore  Deposits 

Lode 

The  various  lines  of  division  between 
and  within  these  structures  arc  described 
in  the  articles: 


Fault 

Joints 

Slickensides 

Lamination 

Foliation 

Cleavage 

For   the    distortion    and    inclination 
of  tlie  strata,  see: 
Mountain 
Anticline 
Syncline 
IVIonocline 
Dip 

Diastrophism   - 
Strike 
Clinometer 

The  general  articles  on  Stratig- 
raphy have  already  been  given.  This 
division  will  concern  itself  only  with 
the  articles  describing  the  various 
strata  and  groups  of  strata,  and,  with 
them,  the  various  ages  in  the  history  of 
the  eartli. 


GEOLOGY 


181 


Z).   i'trattgraplitral  O^^nlnrjii 


I.  The  main  systems  or  areas  into 
which  the  whole  series  of  strata  and 
the  liistory  of  the  eartli  fall  are  de- 
scribed under: 

Archaean  System 

Pre-cambrian  Formations 

Paleozoic 

Mesozoic  Era 

Ccnozoic 

Tertiary  System 

Quaternary 

II.  The  systems  and  periods  into 
which  the  above  are  divided  are  de- 
scribed in  the  following  articles: 

1.  Archaan  System: 
Algonkian  System 
Laurentian  System 

2.  Paleozoic  System: 

Cambrian  System 
Ordovitian 
Silurian  System 
Devonian  System 
Old  Red  Sandstone 
Carboniferous  System 
Permian  System 
New   Red   Sandstone 
Red  Sandstone 

3.  The  Mesozoic  System: 
Triassic  System 
Jurassic  System 
Cretaceous  System 

4.  The  Tertiary  System: 
Eocene  Epoch 
Oligocene   Epoch 
Miocene  Epoch 
Pliocene  Epoch 

5.  The  Quaternary  System: 
Glacial  Period 
Pleistocene  Period 
Recent  Period 


III.  The  local  developments,  or 
minor  divisions,  of  the  systems  men- 
tioned are  only  in  a  few  cases  identical 
over  large  areas,  and  have  accordingly 
received  different  names  in  the  differ- 
ent continents. 

1.  For  names  and  description  of  the 
minor  divisions  in  the  various  countries 
of  Europe,  see  the  following  articles: 

(a)   Silurian: 

Caradoc  Sandstone 
Wenlock  Group 

(6)   Devonian: 
Goniatites 
Spirifer 

(c)  Carboniferous: 

Millstone  Grit 
Mountain  Limestone 

(d)  Triassic: 

Bunter 
Muschelkalk 
Keuper 
Rha?tic  Beds 

(^)   Jurassic: 

Liassic  Series 

Oolite 

Oxford  Clay 

Solenhofen  Lithographic  Stone 

Purbeck  Beds 

(/")   Cretaceous: 

Greensand 
Wealden  Formation 
Gault 

Cenomanian 
Maestricht  Beds 

(g)   Eocene: 

London  Clay 


182 


GEOLOGY 


Paris  Basin  ' 

Bagshot  Beds 
Nummulites 
Calcaire  Grossier 
(a)  Miocene: 
Molasse 
2.  For  the  minor  divisions  in  Amer- 
ica, see : 

(a)  Cambrian: 
Potsdam  Sandstone 

(b)  Silurian: 
Calciferous 
Trenton  Series 
Niagara  Series 
Salina  Stage 
Clinton  Stage 
Medina  Series 
Lower  Helderberg 
Oriskan}'  Stage 


(f)   Devonian: 

Corniferous  Series 
Chemung  Group 
Catskill  Group 

((f)   Carboniferous: 
Mississippian  Series 
Pottsville  Conglomerate 
Burlington  Limestone 
Permian  System 

(f)   Cretaceous: 
Dakota  Stage 
Niobrara  Stage 
Laramie  Stage 

(f)   Quaternary     {in     all     conti- 
nents) : 

Alluvium 

Drift 

Glacial  Period 


E.   JPak0ut0l0gtral  ^^nlorjg 


Paleontology  is  the  study  of  the  na- 
ture and  distribution  of  the  forms  of 
organic  beings  imbedded  in  the  rocks  of 
the  earth's  crust.  Viewed  from  the 
point  of  view  of  biology,  it  is  a  part 
of  zoology  and  botany ;  but  it  is  so  inti- 
mately connected  with  the  study  of  the 
rocks  themselves  that  it  may  properly 
be  considered  a  part  of  geology.  The 
general  articles  on  the  subject  are: 

Paleontology 

Paleobotany 

Fossil 

Fossilifcrous  Rocks 

Contemporaneity 

Homotaxy 

Ichnology 

Fossil  Forests 

From  a  Ijiological  point  of  view,  the 
proper    method    of    classifying    fossil 


forms  would  naturally  follow  the  same 
principles  that  guide  the  classification 
of  living  plants  and  animals.  But  in 
studying  paleontology  as  a  part  of 
geology,  the  geological  classification 
is  preferable;  indeed,  the  two  systems 
would,  to  a  certain  extent,  coincide.  We 
shall,  therefore,  refer  the  reader  to  the 
characteristic  fossils  of  each  geological 
epoch.  Most  of  the  larger  classes  and 
orders  of  fossil  forms  arc  still  repre- 
sented by  living  species,  and  general 
discussions  of  these  classes  will  be  found 
in  tlie  articles  given  in  the  chapters  on 
Botany  and  Zoology. 

1.  The  only  fossil  found  in  the 
Aroti.san  System  is  described  in  the 
article: 

Eozoon 


GEOLOGY 


183 


2.  Cambrl\n  Fossils: 

(a)  Plants: 

Oldhamia 

(b)  Animals: 

Protospongia 

Dictyoiiema 

Agnostus 

Paradoxides 

Trilobita 

Lingula 

Obolella 

Belleroplion 

Hyolithes 

Nautiloidea 

Orthoceras 

3.  Silurian  Fossils  : 

(a)  Invertebrates: 

Brachiospongia 

Sti'omatopora 

GraptoHte 

Favosites 

Olenus 

Chonetes 

Asaphus 

Polyzoa 

Fenestella 

Atrypa 

Orthis 

Spirifer 

Pentanierus 

Pteropoda 

Tentaculites 

(b)  Fishes: 
Pteraspis 
Cyathaspis 

4.  Devonian  Fossils: 
(a)  Invertebrates: 

Monograptus 
Atrypa 

Cj'athophyllum 
Phacops 


Ammonoidea 
Plcurotomaria 
Murchisonia 
Clymenia 
Goniatites 
Bactrites 
Hcliophyllum 
(b)  Fishes: 

Holoptychius 

Osteolepis 

Dipterus 

Coccosteus 

Dinichthys 

Cephalaspis 

Chirolepis 

5.  Carboniferous  Fossils: 

(a)  Plants: 
Neuropteris 
Calamites 
Asterophyllites 
Annularia 
Lepidodendron 
Sigillaria 
Stigmai'ia 
Cordaites 
Carpolith 
Trigonocarpus 

(b)  Invertebrates: 
Fusulina 
Chonetes 
Productus 
Proetus 
Eurypterus 

(c)  Fishes: 

Megalichthys 
Cestraciont 

(d)  Reptiles: 
Stegocephalia 

6.  Permian  Fossils: 

(a)   Fishes: 
Palaeoniscus 


184 


GEOLOGY 


(6)  Reptiles: 

Rhynchocephalia 

7.  Triassic  Fossils: 

(a)  Plants: 
Equisetum 
Cycadaceas 

(b)  Invertebrates: 

Terebratula 

Ceratites 

Ammonites 

(c)  Reptiles: 
Mastodonsaurus 
Theromorpha 
Dinosauria 
Anchisaurus 
Labyriiithodon 
Dicynodon 

(d)  Mammals: 
Microlcstes 
Microconodon 

8.  JuKASsic  Fossils: 

(a)  Invertebrates: 
Gryphtea 
Trigonia 
Belemnites 

(b)  Fishes: 
Chondrosteus 
Hybodus 

(c)  Reptiles: 
Tcleosaurus 
Ichthyosaurus 
Plcsiosaurus 
Pterodactyl 
Dimor])hodon 
Diplodocus 
Megalosaurus 
Brontosaurus 
Stegosaurus 
Titanosaurus 
Cynognathus 
Baptanodon 


Camptosaurus 

Ceratosaurus 
(d)   Birds: 

Archffiopteryx 
(^)  Mammals: 

Ctenacodon 

9.  Cretaceoi's  Fossils: 
(a)   Invertebrates: 

Foraminifera 

Globigerina 

Ventriculites 

Hippurites 

Radiolites 

Inoceramus 
{b)   Reptiles: 

Chelonia 

Iguanodon 

Mosasauria 

Elasniosaurus 

Hadrosaurus 
(c)   Birds: 

Bird,  Fossil 

Hesperornis 

Ichthyornis 

10.  Eocene  Fossils: 
(a)   Invertebrates: 

Nummulites 
(6)   Reptiles: 
Zcuglodon 
(c)   Mammals: 
Coryphodon 
Hyracotherium 
Horse,  Fossil 
Palaeotherium 
Anchitheriuni 
Anoplotherium 
Lophiodon 
Crcodonta 

11.  Miocene  Fossils: 
(fl)  Mammals: 
Mastodon 


GEOLOGY 


185 


Dinothcrium 

Helladothcrium 

Machasrodus 

Elotheriuin 

Halitlierium 

Hyracodon 

Oreodon 

Titanotherium 

12.  Pliocene  Fossils: 
(a)   Plant: 

Diemonelix 
(6)   Mammals: 

Sivatherium 


Hipparion 
Sabre-Toothed  Tiger 

13.    QUATEENAKY   FoSSILS  : 

(a)  Birds: 
^pyornis 
Moa 

(b)  Mammals: 
Elasmotherium 
Megatherium 
Glyptodon 
Diprotodon 
Mammotli 
Pithecanthropus 


F.   lEroitnmtr  ^fnlorjg 


Tliis  branch  of  geology  is  the  study 
of  all  those  materials  in  the  crust  of  the 
earth  which  can  be  made  useful  to  man, 
and  of  their  modes  of  occurrence.  Most 
of  these  materials  are  used  in  the  form 
in  which  they  exist  in  nature,  or  are 
subjected  only  to  a  more  or  less  me- 
chanical process  of  purification.  There 
is,  however,  a  large  class  of  ci'ust  ma- 
terials which  are  of  little  or  no  value 
in  their  natural  state,  but  wliicli  con- 
tain valuable  elements  that  have  to  be 
separated  by  chemical  analysis.  These 
materials  are  called  ores,  and  in  practi- 
cally all  cases  the  valuable  element 
which  they  contain  is  a  metal.  Indeed, 
the  term  ore  has  been  extended  to  all 
rocks  containing  metals,  even  where  the 
mixture  is  only  mechanical.  The  met- 
als, unless  found  in  the  native  state, 
and  other  artificial  products,  are  not 
subjects  of  Economic  Geology,  but  are 
treated  under  Chemistry  and  Manufac- 
tures and  Engineering.  Likewise,  the 
methods  of  extracting  useful  materials 
from  the  earth's  crust  are  dealt  with 


under  ^Mining  and  ^Metallurgy,  Eco- 
nomic Geology  taking  cognizance  only 
of  their  modes  of  occurrence  in  the 
crust. 

I.  The  modes  of  occurrence  of  the 
larger  rock  masses  have  already  been 
referred  to  under  Petrology  and  Struc- 
tural Geology ;  the  occurrence  of  the 
other  non-metallic  substances  will  be 
described  in  the  articles  on  each  specific 
substance.  It  is,  therefore,  only  neces- 
sary to  give  as  introductory  articles 
those  which  describe  the  occurrence  of 
ores.     See : 

Ore 

Ore    Deposits 

Gangue 

Footwall 

Hanging  Wall 

Pinch 

Dike 

Lode 

II.  The  Metallifekous  Ores: 
1.  Iron  Ores: 
Limonite 


186 


GEOLOGY 


Hematite 

Magnetite 

Siderite 

Franklinite 

Bog-Iron  Ore 

Pjrite 

Pea  Ore 

2.  Gold 

3.  Platinum 

4.  Silver  Ores: 

Silver 

Pyrargerite 

Cerargyrite 

Proustite 

Stcphanite 

5.  Copper  Ores: 

Chalcopyrite 

Cuprite 

Malachite 

6.  Lead  Ores: 

Galena 
Anglesite 
Cerusite 
Pyromorphite 

7.  Zinc  Ores: 

Blende 
Willemite 
Zincite 
Calamine 

8.  Mercury  Ore: 

Cinnabar 

9.  Manganese  Ore: 

Pyrolusite 

10.  Aluminum  Ores: 
Cryolite 
Bauxite 

11.  Tin  Ores: 
Tin 
Cassiterite 

12.  Nickel  Ore: 
Millerite 


13.  Antimony  Ore: 
Stibnite 

III.  The  Carbon  Minerals  : 

1.  Coal 
Anthracite 
Bituminous  Coal 
Jet 

Lignite 
Boghead  Coal 
Peat 

2.  Petroleum 
Gas,  Natural 

3.  Asphalt 
Bitumen 
Albertite 
Grahamite 
Gilsonite 
Maltha 

4.  Ozocerite 
Asphaltic  Coal 
Mineral  Tallow 

5.  Graphite 

IV.  Building  Materials: 
Building-Stone 
Granite 

Sandstone 

Limestone 

Freestone 

Marble 

Onyx  Marble 

Flagstone 

Caithness  Flagstone 

Slate 

Bath  Stone 

Caen  Stone 

Brownstone 

Puzzuolana 

V.  Soils,    Clays,    Fertilizers, 

Waters  : 
1.   Ilunms 
Soil 


AND 


GEOLOGY 


187 


Loam 
Loess 

2.  Clay 
Potter's  Clay 
Fire-Clay 
Pipe-Clay 
Brick-Clay 
Kaolin 

3.  Gypsum 
Apatite 
Phosphorite 
Marl 
Guano 

4.  Mineral  Waters 
Spring 
Artesian  Wells 

VI.  Salts: 
Salt 

Bay  Salt 
Borax 

VIL  Precious  Stones: 
Diamond 
Corundum 
Quartz 
Emerald 
Ruby 
Beryl 

Chrysoberyl 
Sapphire 
Aquamarine 
Tourmaline 
Amethyst 
Opal 
Alabaster 
Chalcedony 
Carnelian 
Sardonyx 
Aragonite 
Agate 
Jasper 


Chrysolite 

Turquoise 

Topaz 

Garnet 

Rhodonite 

Chrysocolla 

Catlinite 

VIII.  Abrasives: 
Abrasives 
Grindstone 
Buhrstone 
Oil-Stone 
Novaculite 
Emery 
Corundum 
Carborundum 
Diatomaceous  Earth 
Tripolite 

IX.  Pigments: 
Mineral  Paints 
Graphite 
Ochre 
Umber 
Burnt  Sienna 
Chalk 
Crayon 
Black  Chalk 

X.  Minerals  Used  in  Various  Arts: 
Lithographic  Stone 

Solenhofen  Lithographic  Stone 

Talc 

Soapstone 

Mica 

Feldspar 

Fluorite 

Sulphur 

Asbestic 

Asbestos 

Magnesite 

Fuller's  Earth 


188 


GEOLOGY 


G,   ltfl0rapl)tfa  at  lEmtttntt  O^fBlngijEitfi 


Buckknd,  W. 

Conybeare,  W.  D. 

Cope,  E.  D. 

Dana,  J.  D. 

Dawson,  G.  M. 

Dawson,  Sir  J.  W. 

De  la  Beche,  Sir  H.  T. 

Eli  de  Beaumont,  Jean  Baptiste 

Emmons,  E. 

Forbes,  J.  D. 

Geikie,  Sir  Archibald 

Hall,  Sir  James 

Hayden,  F.  V. 

Hitchcock,  E. 

Hutton,  J. 

Lapham,  I.  A. 

Lea,  I. 

Le  Conte,  J. 

Lyell,  Sir  C. 

Marcou,  J. 


Marsh,  O.  C. 
Miller,  H. 

Murchison,  Sir  R.  I. 
Newberry,  J.  S. 
Overweg,  A. 
Owen,  D.  D. 
Phillips,  J. 
Powell,  J.  W. 
Ramsay,  Sir  A.  C. 
Saussure,  H.  B.  de 
Sedgwick,  A. 
Silliman,  B. 
Smith,  W. 
Stevenson,  J.  J, 
Strickland,  H.  E. 
Unger,  F. 
Werner,  A.  G. 
Whitney,  J.  D. 
Winchell,  A. 
Woodward,  S.  P. 


Qltjapter  IB*    iirtwrntog^ 


METEOROLOGY  is  the  study  of  the  atmospliere,  its  static  condi- 
tions and  appearances,  and  tiie  changes  and  movements  of  all 
kinds  which  take  place  in  it.  The  two  principal  constituents  of 
tlio  atmosphere  are  the  air  and  the  moisture  in  various  forms 
which  the  air  holds  in  suspension.  Weather  and  climate  are  prin- 
cipally determined  by  the  conditions  under  which  these  two  constituents  exist,  at 
any  particular  time  or  habitually.  The  static  conditions  of  the  air  which  mainly 
affect  the  weather  are  its  temperature  and  its  pressure ;  its  movements  come 
under  the  general  term  wind.  The  moisture  of  the  atmosphere,  unlike  the  bulk 
of  the  air,  is  continually  changing  its  identity.  It  is  raised  from  surface  waters 
by  evaporation,  held  for  a  time  in  suspension  under  various  forms,  and  then 
returned  to  the  earth's  surface  by  various  modes  of  precipitation. 

Besides  these  two  sets  of  phenomena,  the  electrical  conditions  of  the 
atmosphere  form  an  important  element  of  the  weather.  Other  causes  sometimes 
bring  about  peculiar  or  unusual  weather  conditions,  and,  aside  from  weather  in  its 
strict  sense,  meteorology  takes  cognizance  of  the  peculiar  optical  appearances 
which  the  atmosphere  presents.  These  considerations,  together  with  the  fact 
that  the  practical  aspects  and  practical  rather  than  theoretical  investigations 
hold,  perhaps,  a  more  prominent  place  in  meteorology  than  in  other  natural 
sciences,  serve  to  indicate  the  main  divisions  of  the  subject.  A  considerable 
number  of  instruments  are  used  in  meteorological  investigations,  and  the  articles 
describing  these  will  be  referred  to  in  connection  with  the  appropriate  subdivision. 


I.  General  Prixciples  of  the  Sci- 

ence.    See: 
Meteorology 
Atmosphere 

Polarization  of  Skylight 
Dust 
Climate 
Weather 

II.  Temperature  and  Pressure. 

1.  The  theory  and  investigation  of 
temperature  and  its  causes  arc  treated 
under : 

Temperature,  Terrestrial 

Cold  Wave 

Frost 

Snow  Line 

Actinometry 

Thermometry 

Seasons 


2.  The  instruments  used  in  measur- 
ing temperature  and  radiation  are  de- 
scribed under: 

Thermometer 

Actinometer 

Actinograph 

Radiometer 

Pyrheliomcter 

3.  For  atmospheric  pressure  and  the 
instruments  used  in  measuring  it,  see : 

Barometer 

IIL  Winds. 

1.  There  are  certain  general  forms 
of  wind  movements  recognized  without 
reference  to  localities.     See: 

Wind 
Storm 
Whirlwind 


189 


190 


METEOROLOGY 


Waterspout 
Gale 

2.  On  the  other  hand,  in  certain  parts 
of  the  world  peculiar  local  conditions 
produce  winds  which  have  received  local 
names.      See : 

Doldrums 

Calm  Latitudes 

Blizzard 

Chinook 

Etesian  Winds 

Harmattan 

Mistral 

Sirocco 

Monsoon 

Simoom 

Typhoon 

Equinoctial  Storm 

3.  For  the  instruments  and  methods 
used  in  measuring  or  observing  the 
winds,  see : 

Anemometer 
Anemograph 
Anemoscope  * 

Beaufort  Scale 
IV.  Evaporation  and  Precipitation. 

1.  See  the  general  article: 
Evaporation 

2.  The  various  forms  in  which  mois- 
ture is  held  suspended  are  described 
under : 

Humidity 
Haze 
Fog 
Cloud 

3.  For  the  various  forms  of  precipi- 
tation, see: 

Dew 

Hoar  Frost  (under  Frost) 

Rain 

Cloudburst 

Snow 

Hail 


4.  For  the  instruments  used  in  meas- 
uring or  observing  the  moisture  of  the 
atmosphere,  see: 

Hygrometer 

Drosometer 

Nephoscope 

Rain  Gauge 

V.  Electrical   Conditions   Affect- 

ing the  Weather.     See: 

Atmospheric  Electricity 

Lightning 

Lightning,  Accidents  from 

Lightning,  Protection  from 

VI.  Peculiar  or  Unusual  Weather 
Conditions  are  Described  in 
THE  Articles: 

Dust 

Dark  Day 
Black  Rain 
Blood-Rain 
Indian  Summer 

Vn.  Other  Phenomena  of  the  At- 
mosphere Belong  Mainly  to 
Optical  Appearances  or  Elec- 
trical Displays.     See: 

Rainbow 

Fog-Bow 

Halo 

Anthelia 

Scintillation 

Fata  Morgana 

Mirage 

Aurora  Borcalis 

Elmo's  Fire,  Saint 

Castor  and  Pollux 

VHI.  Practical    Investigations    in 
Meteorology    are    Generally 
Conducted  hy  Government  Bu- 
reaus.    Sec: 
Weather  Bureau 
Signal  Corps,  U.  S.  Army 


METEOROLOGY 


191 


These  bureaus  Wcarn  the  public  by   a 
system  of  signals.     See: 

Storm  and  Weather  Signals 
And  in  this  connection  also: 

Fog-Signals 
They   also   issue   daily   weather  maps. 
See: 

Isothermal  Lines 


Isobarometric  Linos 
Isabnormal  Lines 
Isanomalous  Lines 

IX.  For  Biographies  of  the  Most 
Prominent    Meteorologists,    see : 
Abbe,  Cleveland 
Espy,  James  Pollard 
Fonvielle,  Wilfrid  de 


QII]apt^r  19.    (Srograpltg 


GEOGRAPHY  is  the  description  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  all  its 
aspects.  Just  as  the  surface  is  the  place  where  the  atmosphere 
r  meets  the  lithosphere  and  hydrosphere,  so  do  the  sciences  of 
IMeteorology  and  Geology  meet  in  that  of  Geography,  and  the 
last  to  a  certain  extent  encroaches  upon  the  fields  of  the  other  two. 
That  is,  Geography  includes  a  regional  study  of  the  upper  layers  of  the  earth's 
crust,  and  a  regional  study  of  the  atmosphere,  or  the  climatic  conditions  prevail- 
ing on  the  various  parts  of  the  surface.  Geographj'  also  includes  the  study  of 
tiie  hydrosphere,  or  oceans,  the  configuration  of  their  shores  and  bottoms,  and  the 
phenomena  that  take  place  in  them. 

The  whole  subj  ect  may  be  broadly  divided  into  three  main  branches : 
Mathematical  Geography,  which  deals  with  the  form,  dimensions,  and  position 
of  the  earth,  and  the  methods  of  its  delineation ;  Physical  Geography,  which  is 
a  general  discussion  of  the  various  natural  features  of  the  earth's  surface;  and 
Political,  Regional,  or  Descriptive  Geography,  which  gives  detailed  and 
specific  descriptions  of  the  separate  parts  of  the  earth's  surface,  generally  as 
its  human  inhabitants  have  divided  it  among  themselves.  This  branch  also 
describes  the  human  inhabitants  themselves,  all  their  varied  activities,  and  all  the 
artificial  changes  which  they  have  made,  and  the  structures  which  they  have 
built  on  the  earth. 

I.  General.     See:  Chart 

Earth  G'°be 

Pp|g  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey 


Equator,  Terrestrial  Geodesy 

Meridian 


Latitude  and  Longitude 


III.  Terrestrl^l   Magnetism.      See : 


Degree  of  Latitude  Magnetism,  Terrestrial 

Degree  of  Longitude  Declination 

Tropics  I>'P 

Geography  Isoclinal 

II.  Methods  of  Delineation.     See:  Isogenic  Lines 

Map  Isodynamic  Lines 

Under  this  head  will   be   given  the  or  climatic  causes.     The  articles  on  the 

articles    describing    geographical    fea-  causes  themselves  are  referred  to  under 

turcs  that  arc  due  to  various  geological  Geology    and    Meteorology.     At    the 

192 


GEOGRAPHY 


193 


end  of  each  subdivision  are  given  the 
articles  on  the  most  remarkable  ex- 
amples of  the  features  discussed. 

I.  General  Article: 

Physiography 

II.  Oceanography: 
Oceanography 
Ocean 

Deep-Sea  Exploration 

Abysmal  Accumulations 

Oceanic  Deposits 

Ocean  Currents 

Tides 

Bore 

Shore 

Atlantic  Ocean 

Pacific  Ocean 

Indian  Ocean 

III.  General  Land  Forms  : 
Continent 

Island 

Mountain 

Valley 

Plain 

Plateau 

Basin 

IV.  Hydrography: 
Hydrography 
River 

Divide 

Waterfall 

Inundation 

Flood-Plain 

Delta 

Bar 

Lake 

Floating  Islands 

V.  Geographical  Features  Due  to 

^loVEMENTS    OF    THE    EaRTh's 

Crust : 
Beaches,  Raised 


Estuary 
Fiord 

Coastal  Plain 
Great  Rift  ^'alley 

VT.  Features     Due     to     Volcanic 
Action: 

Volcano 
Crater 
Geyser 
Dike 

Laccolite 

Vesuvius 

Etna  (.Etna) 

Krakatoa 

Pelee,  Mont 

Hecla 

Mauna  Loa 

Kilauea 

Soufriere,  La 

Popocatepetl 

Yellowstone  National  Park 

Palisades 

Giant's  Causeway 

StafFa 

yil.  Features  Due  to  Erosion: 

Erosion 

Piedmont  Plain 

Bad  Lands 

ChfF 

Talus 

River  Terraces  (under  Terrace) 

Canon 

Mesa 

Sink  Hole 

Cave 

Karst 

Delaware  Water  Gap 

Colorado  River 

Niagara  River  and  Falls 

Victoria  Falls 

Mammoth  Cave 

Lurav  Cave 


194 


GEOGRAPHY 


Natural  Bridge 
Yosemite  Valley 

VIII.  Features     Due     to     Glacial 

Action  : 
Glacier 
Moraine 

Iceberg  (under  Ice) 
Avalanche 
Drumlin 
Eskers 

Giants'  Kettles 
Rocking  Stones 
Mer  de  Glace 
Gorner  Glacier 

IX.  Features  Due  to  Wind  Action  : 
Dune 

Medano 
Musical  Sand 


X.  Features  Due  to  Peculiar  Soil 

OR  Climatic  Conditions  : 

Desert 

Prairie 

Savannas 

Steppe 

Tundra 

Downs 

Llanos 

Pampas 

Karroo 

Sahara 

Gobi 

XI.  Features  Due  to  the  Action 

OF  Anuials  : 

Coral  Island 
Atoll 
Barrier  Reef 


C.   Pultttral  0r  S^ginnal  C^^ograplig 


Lack  of  space  forbids  anything  like 
an  enumeration  of  even  the  more  im- 
portant articles  describing  the  various 
parts  of  the  earth  and  their  inhabi- 
tants. The  bulk  of  minor  gazetteer 
articles  arc,  of  course,  intended  only  for 
incidental  reference,  when  information 
about  a  particular  locality  happens  to 
be  desired.  Nevertheless,  it  would  be 
possible  to  plan  a  very  instructive  and 
interesting  course  of  systematic  reading 
in  descriptive  goograpliy. 

One  way  would  obviously  be  to  read 
first  the  articles  on  the  larger  divisions 
of  the  earth,  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
America,  Australia,  Arctic  Re- 
gion, and  Antarctic  Region,  and,  in 
the  latter  connection,  the  article  on 
Polar  Research.  These  articles  give, 
besides,  a  general  geographic  and  eth- 


nographic description,  and  a  history 
of  exploration  and  discoveries  from 
ancient  to  recent  times.  TMiey  also 
refer  to  the  separate  divisions  of  the 
larger  land  areas,  and,  by  reference  to 
the  articles  on  these  divisions,  the  reader 
will  be  carried  successively  into  nar- 
rower and  narrower  fields  with  more 
and  more  detailed  description. 

The  story  of  explorations  and  dis- 
coveries, and  of  the  science  of  geog- 
raphy, may  be  carried  further  by 
means  of  the  following  names  and  titles, 
which  include  sucli  names  as  do  not  ap- 
pear in  some  other  connections  in  this 
book : 

Polar  Research 

Andrce,  S.  A. 

Baker,  S.  W. 

Barth,  II. 


GEOGRAPHY 


195 


Behaim,  M. 
Borchgrevink,  C.  E. 
Brazza,  P. 
Bruce,  J. 

Burckhardt,  J.  L. 
Burton,  R.  F. 
Chancellor,  R. 
Cook,  James 
Flinders,  M. 
Franklin,  J. 
Gray,  R. 
Greely,  A.  W. 
Hakluyt,  R. 
Hall,  C.  F. 
Hcdin,  Sven 
Johnston,  H.  H. 
Kane,  E.  K. 
Kiepert,  H. 
Kingsley,  M.  H. 
Kohl,  J.  G. 
La  Hontan,  A.  L. 
Lander,  R.  L. 
Laperouse,  J.  F. 
Livingstone,  David 
Lockwood,  J.  B. 
McClure,  R.  J. 
Major,  R.  H. 
Malte-Brun,  K, 
Markham,  C.  R. 
Nansen,  F. 
Nordenskjold,  N.  A. 
Park,  Mungo 
Parry,  W.  E. 
Peary,  R.  E. 
Polo,  Marco 
Przhevalski,  N.  M. 
Ratzel,  F. 
Ravenstein,  E.  G. 
Reclus,  E. 
Rennel,  J. 
Ritter,  K. 
Rohlfs,  G. 


Ross,  James  C. 

Ross,  John 

Speke,  J.  H. 

Stanley,  H.  M. 

Sturt,  C. 

Sverdrup,  O. 

Wellman,  W.       ■ 

Wilkes,  Charles 

Still  another  method  of  carrying  on 
the  study  of  geography  would  be  to 
study  the  maps,  and,  wherever  a  partic- 
ular region  found  there  excites  the 
reader's  curiosity,  turn  to  the  appropri- 
ate article.  JMany  other  ways  will 
suggest  themselves,  according  to  the 
individual's  tastes,  inclination,  or  re- 
quirements, and  it  will  be  found  that  an 
encyclopaedia  is  the  best  means  of  gain- 
ing, not  only  a  minute  knowledge  of 
any  particular  locality  on  tlie  earth's 
surface,  but  also  a  broad  perspective 
view  of  the  whole  field  of  human  activ- 
ity. For  the  gazetteer  articles  are  not 
to  be  regarded  merely  as  dealing  with 
topics  in  geography.  Taking  any  of 
the  articles  on  the  various  countries  of 
the  globe,  as  the  United  States,  or 
Japan,  such  article  may  be  made  to 
supply  detailed  information  on  what- 
ever topic  may  be  the  subject  of  study 
or  reading:  Zoology,  Geology-,  Sta- 
tistics, Finance,  Education,  Industry, 
or  Transportation.  The  geograplii- 
cal  articles  in  the  Encyclopa?dia  are,  for 
practical  purposes,  undoubtedly  the 
most  valuable  in  the  New  International 
Encyclopedia.  To  quote  these  articles 
and  the  accompanying  maps  would  be 
to  encumber  the  book  with  enormous 
lists  of  names,  which  the  reader  may 
be  trusted  readily  to  select  for  him- 
self. 


Cljapter  20.    lotaug 


BOTANY  is  the  science  tliat  deals  with  plants  in  all  their  aspects, — 
their  origin  and  development,  nature,  structure,  life  processes, 
classification,  and  distribution.  The  nature  and  origin  of  plants 
will  be  discussed  in  the  general  articles  given  below.  All  consid- 
erations of  the  form  and  structure  of  individual  plants  may  be 
broadly  classed  under  the  general  term  Structural  Botany,  or  Plant  Anat- 
omy. The  study  of  the  processes  which  constitute  the  life  of  a  plant  and  the 
conditions  which  affect  those  processes  is  called  Physiology.  These  two  branches 
of  the  science  are  sometimes  united  under  the  term  General  Botany,  as  distinct 
from  Specific  or  Systematic  Botany,  also  called  Taxonomy,  which  deals  with 
the  classification  and  description  of  the  various  kinds  of  plants.  A  somewhat 
recently  established  brancli  of  the  science  is  that  of  Ecology,  which  deals  with 
the  distribution  of  plants  in  general.  Another  branch  represents  the  practical 
aspects  of  botany  by  a  particular  investigation  of  the  plants  which  can  be  made 
to  enter  into  human  economy.  This  is  Economic  Botany,  the  science  which  has 
the  closest  bearing  on  the  arts  of  agriculture  and  horticulture.  For  a  general 
discussion  of  botanical  science,  see: 


Botany 
Biology 
Evolution 
Heredity 

For  General  Methods   of   Botanical 
Investigation,  see: 


Botanical  Laboratories  (under  Lab- 
oratory) 
Botanic  Garden 
Herbarium 
Index  Kewensis 


A.   ^trurtural  Sntang 


This  subject  deals  with  the  form  and 
structure  of  individual  plants,  of  the 
plant  body  as  a  whole,  of  its  separate 
limbs  and  organs,  of  the  various  tis- 
sues of  which  these  are  composed,  and 
of  the  minute  structures  of  the  cells 
which  compose  the  tissues.  The  study 
of  the  individual  cell  has  recently  re- 
ceived so  much  attention  that  it  has  been 
elevated  from  a  branch  of  Histology, 
which  deals  with  the  microscopic  nature 
of  tissues,  to  the  separate  science  of 
Cytology.  The  study  of  the  varying 
types  of  organs  has  been  called  Mor- 
phology,   and    this    branch    may    be 


divided  into  the  morphology  of  the 
sterile  or  vegetative  organs  and  the 
morphology  of  the  reproductive 
organs. 

For  Genci'al  Articles  on  Structural 
Botany,  see: 

Vegetable  Tissue 
Anatomy  of  Plants 
Growth  (in  Plants) 
Morphology 

I.  Cytology.     A  description  of  the 
general  structure  and  contents  of  the 
cell  is  given  in  the  articles: 
Cytology 
19G 


BOTANY 


197 


Cell  (in  Plants) 

Intercellular  System 

Protoplasm 

Nucleus 

Osmosis 

Plasmoljsis 

Movement 

Rotation 

For  the  composition  of  the  cell  wall,  see : 

Cellulose 
Lignin 
Lignification 
Micellar  Theory 

For  the  structure  of  the  nucleus,  see : 

Nucleolus 

Linin 

Chromatin 

Chromosome 

Centrosome 

For  the  cytoplasm,  see: 

Microsome 
Plastids 

The  protoplasmic  contents  include 
a  considerable  variety  of  coloring 
matter.     See : 

Color  in  Plants 

Chromoplast 

Chromatophore 

Endociirome 

Chloroplast 

Anthocyan 

Chlorophyll 

Leucoplasts 

Elaioplasts 

Erythrophyll 

Etiolin 

Etiolation 

Carotin 

Cyanophyll 

Phycoerythrin 


Phycophaein 
Pyrenoid 

Besides  the  protoplasm  the  cell  often 
contains  crystals  and  other  bodies. 
See: 

Raphides  • 

Aleurone 

Inulin 

Starch 

Finally  the  various  constituents  of 
the  sap,  digestive  ferments,  and  secre- 
tions : 

Sap 

Sugar 

Glucose 

Enzyme 

Diastase 

Cytase 

Lipase 

Invertase 

Oxidase 

Pectase 

Zymase 

Latex 

The  mechanics  of  cell  division  are  de- 
scribed under: 

jVIechanics  of  Development 

Fission 

Mitosis 

Karyokinesis 

Blepharoplast 

II.  Histology.  A  general  discus- 
sion of  plant  tissues  is  given  in  the 
article  Histology,  section  on  Histol- 
ogy of  Plants. 

Tissues  are  variously  classified.  Ac- 
cording to  their  general  nature,  the 
two  most  important  kinds  are  de- 
scribed under: 

Parenchyma 

Collenchynia 

In  higher  plants,  the  tissues  are  gen- 


198 


BOTANY 


erally    differentiated    into    three    main 
systems.     See : 

Pith 

Wood 

Cortex 

The  general  articles  on  woody  tissue 
are: 
Alburnum 
Duramen 
iVascular  Tissue 
Conducting  Tissue 
Mechanical  Tissue 
Mestome 
Plerome 

Fpr  the  special  structure  of  wood,  see : 
Fibrovascular  Bundle 
Fibre 
Phloem 
Bast 

Hadrome 
Leptome 
Tylosis 
Trachete       (under      Anatomy      of 

Plants) 
Tracheid 
Sieve  Vessels 
Cambium 
Pericycle 
Medullary  Ray 

The  various  tissues  found  in  the  cor- 
tex are  described  in  the  articles : 

Meristcm 

E])idcrmis 

Cuticle 

Endodcrmis 

Hypodermis 

Periblcm 

Dermatogen 

Bark 

Cork 

Piicllodcrm 

Pliellogen 


Other  special  forms  of  tissue  are: 
Aerenchyma 
Pahsade  Cells 
MesophyU 

III.  Morphology  of  the  Vegeta- 
tive Organs. 

For  the  general  forms  of  plant 
bodies,  see: 

Tiiallus 

Herb 

Siu'ubs 

Tree 

Juvenile  Forms 

Some  of  the  special  forms  or  organs 
of  fungi  are  described  under: 

Hypha 

Mycelium  • 

Plasmodium 

Pileus 

Higher  plants  are  generally  differ- 
entiated into  stem,  root,  and  leaves,  all 
of  which  may  carr}'  minor  organs  or 
appendages.     See : 

Stem 

Root 

Leaf 
For  special  forms  of  stems,  see: 

Tuber 

Corm 

Internode 

Fasciation 

Phylloclad 

For  their  mode  of  branching: 
Branching 

Moiiopodial  Branching 
Dichotomy 

For   the   forms   and   appearance   of 
leaves,  see: 
Frond 
Pinnule 
Phyllodes 


BOTANY 


199 


Petiole 

Venation 

Variegation 

Anisophylly 

Heterophylly 

For  their  arrangement  in  the  bud, 
see: 

Leaf-Buds  (under  Bud) 

The  forms  and  appendages  of  the 
roots  are  described  in  the  articles: 

Root 

Rhizoids 

Root  Tubercles 

For  the  organs  of  respiration  and 
exudation,  see: 

The  Aerating  System  (under  Anat- 
omy of  Plants) 

Stomata 

Lenticels 

Hydathode 

For  the  organs  of  support  and  sim- 
ilar use,  see : 

Tendril 

Haustoria 

Other  appendages  of  plants  are  de- 
scribed under: 
Trichome 
Gland 

Cilia  of  Plants 
Bloom 

IV.  Morphology  of  the  Repro- 
DucTiviE  Organs. 

The  vast  majority  of  plants  produce 
at  certain  periods  of  their  life-history 
two  sets  of  reproductive  organs,  the 
sexual  and  the  asexual ;  and,  in  all 
plants  above  the  alga  and  fungi,  these 
follow  each  other  regularly  in  alter- 
nate generations.  (See  the  general 
articles  on  sexual  processes  referred  to 
under  Physiology.)  In  this  section, 
only  those  articles  will  be  given  which 


describe  the  sexual  and  asexual  repro- 
ductive organs.  These  organs  are 
present  in  some  form  throughout  large 
classes  of  plants.  Special  morjjhology 
will  be  discussed  under  the  appropriate 
heads  in  Systematic  Botany. 

Asexual  reproduction  is  effected  by 
spores  and  by  vegetative  off-shoots. 
For  the  latter,  see : 

Bud 

Geinm£E 

Bulb 

For  the  organs  of  spore-reproduc- 
tion, see: 

Spore 

Intine 

Homospory 

Heterospory 

Microspore 

Megaspore 

Sporangium 

Microsporangium 

Megasporangium 

Sporophyll 

Microsporophyll 

Megasporophyll 

The  organs  of  sexual  reproduction 
are: 

Gamete 

Generative  Cell 

Oosphere 

Sperm 

Antheridium 

Archegonium 

Oogonium 

Paraphyses 

Oospore 

In  the  higher  plants  (Spermato- 
phytes),  the  two  sets  of  reproductive 
organs,  sexual  and  asexual,  are  enclosed 
together  in  the  flower.     See: 

Flower 

Seed 

Fruit 


200 


BOTANY 


For  the  various  modes  in  wliich 
flowers  are  arranged  on  the  plant, 
see: 

Inflorescence 

Panicle 

Cyme 

Corymb 

Ament 

Disk 

The  parts  of  a  flower  are  described 
in  the  articles : 

Involucre 

Calyx 

Pappus 

Corolla 

Petal 

Ligule 

Nectary 

Pistil 

Ovary 

Carpel 

Ovule 

Placenta 

Stamen 

Anther 

Pollen 


Epigyny 

Hypogyny 

Perigyny 

The  articles  on  the  seed  are: 
Seed 

Endosperm 
Perisperm 
Ovule 
Nucellus 
Embryo 
Suspensor 
Cotyledon 
Hypocotyl 

For    the    various    kinds    of    fruits, 
see: 

Achene 

Berry 

Capsule 

Caryopsis 

Drupe 

Drupelet 

Follicle 

Glume 

Legume 

Nut 

Pome 


B.    Ptptubrjil 


Physiology  is  the  science  which  deals 
with  all  the  processes  that  constitute 
the  life  of  an  individual  plant,  the  con- 
ditions, both  internal  and  external, 
which  affect  plant  life,  and  all  the 
phenomena  attending  such  processes 
and  conditions.  Just  as  we  distinguish 
between  vegetative  and  reproductive 
organs  of  a  plant,  so  we  may  also  dis- 
tinguish between  vegetative  and  repro- 
ductive life  processes;  and  the  former 
may  be  divided  into  the  regular  and 
constant  processes,  which  maintain  the 


life  of  a  plant,  and  the  more  occa- 
sional responses  to  stimuli.  Abnormal 
and  pathological  conditions  also  come 
within  the  scope  of  physiology.  Sec 
Physiology  of  Plants. 

I.  In  all  perfect  plants,  there  is  a 
series  of  regular  mechanical  processes 
by  wiiich  raw  food  material  is  brought 
to  the  digestive  organs  in  the  form  of 
gases  from  the  atmosjihcre,  or  of  min- 
erals dissolved  in  water  from  the  soil ; 
by  other  processes  the  digested  food  is 
carried  to  places  of  storage  or  growing 


BOTANY 


201 


points,  and  the  waste  products  are  ex- 
pelled from  the  sj'stem.      See: 

Respiration  (in  plants) 

Aeration 

Absorption  (in  plants) 

Transpiration 

Potometcr 

Imbibition 

Osmosis 

Turgor 

Root  Pressure 

Conduction 

Storage 

Excretion 

Secretion  (vegetable) 

II.  The  phenomena  of  digestion  and 
growth  are  described  in  the  articles : 

Digestion  in  Plants 

Food  of  Plants 

Nutrition   (in  plants) 

Mycorrhiza 

Photosynthesis 

Etiolation 

Metabolism 

Katabolism 

Anabolism 

Fermentation 

Assimilation 

Regeneration 

Parasite,  Plant 

Saprophyte  "^ 

Carnivorous  Plants 

Insectivorous  Plants 

Energy  of  Plants 

Growth  (in  plants) 

Auxanometer 

Enzymes 

Chloroplasts 

Carotin 

EtioHn 

The  various  movements  which  plants 
are  capable  of  are  described  under: 

Movement 

Moving  Plant 


Motor  Organ 

Locomotion 

Nutation  (in  plants) 

Plants  are  also  capable  of  reacting  to 
a  great  variety  of  stimuli.     See: 

Irritability 

Stimulus 

Tropism 

Phototaxis 

Heliotropism 

Photoepinasty 

Apheliotropism 

Paraheliotropism 

Nyctotropic 

Sleep  of  Plants 

Geotropism  in  Plants 

Apogeotropism 

Diageotropism 

Hydrotropism 

Aphydrotropism 

Aerotropism 

Rheotropism 

Thermotropism 

Chemotaxis 

Chemotropism 

Electrotaxis 

Electrotropism 

Traumatropism 

Sensitive  Plant 

Hyponasty 

Epinasty 

Clinostat 

Tendril 

Lianas 

Reproductive  processes  may  be  di- 
vided into  those  which  take  place  within 
the  individual  plant,  and  those  which 
are  affected  by  the  relation  of  the  in- 
dividual plant  to  its  environment.  The 
latter  are  referred  to  under  Ecology 
(see  C  below),  while  only  the  former 
are  described  in  the  following  articles: 

Reproduction  (in  plants) 

Vegetative  Propagation 


202 


BOTANY 


Sex  in  Plants  (under  Sex) 

Conjugation 

Rejuvenescence 

Isogamy 

Apogamy 

Parthenogenesis 

Vivipary 

Fertilization 

Germination 

Alternation  of  Generations 

Gametophyte 

Sporophyte 


A  discussion  of  the  abnormal  and 
pathological  in  plant  life  is  given  in 
the  articles : 

Teratology 

Monstrosity 

Malformation 

Abortion  in  Plants  (under  Abor- 
tion) 

Vestigial  Structures 

Concrescence 

Galls 


C.   lErnlogg 


Ecology  is  the  science  that  deals 
"with  the  relation  of  a  plant  to  its  envi- 
ronment. This  relation  may  be  that  of 
sexual  intercourse,  relation  to  the  soil, 
situation,  climate,  moisture  conditions, 
relation  to  other  plants  and  to  animals, 
and  any  other  external  conditions  that 
affect  the  situation  of  a  plant,  its 
growth,  or  the  length  of  its  life,  either 
in  the  individual  or  in  the  species  or 
race.  Ecology  is  thus  the  study  of  the 
distribution  of  plants  in  the  broadest 
sense.     See : 

Ecology 

Distribution  of  Plants 

Bionomics 

Floristics 

Dysteleology 

Adaptation 

Epharmony 

1.  The  relations  of  the  reproductive 
functions  of  a  plant  to  the  environ- 
ment arc  discussed  in  the  articles: 

Pollination 

Cross-Fertilization 

Hybrid 

Dispersal 

The    special    arrangements     which 


affect    cross-pollination    are    described 
under : 

Cleistogamy 

Allogamy 

Geitonogamjr 

Monoecism 

Dioecism 

Dichogamy 

Entomophilous  Plant 

Anemophilous  Plants 

Hydrophilous 

For  the  relation   of  plants   to   the 
soil,  see : 

Humus  Plants 
Lime  Plants        "' 
Clay-Plants 
Nitrophilous  Plants 
Halophytc 
Dune  Vegetation 
Rock  Plants 
Epiphj'te 

For  the  relation  of  plants  to  general 
localities,  sec: 

Autochthonous 
Endcmism 
Naturalization 
Migration  of  Plants 


BOTANY 


203 


and,  to  specific  situations: 

Mountain  Plants 

Alpine  Plant 

ClifF-Plants 

Beach  Plants 

Ruderal  Plants 

Hylophytes 

Benthos 

Enalids 

Plankton 

For  the  relation  of  a  plant  to  mois- 
ture and  climate,  see : 

Hydrophytes 

Hygrophytes 

Mesophyte 

'Amphibious  Plants 

Xerophytes 

Desert  Vegetation 

Arctic  Plants  (under  Arctic  Re- 
gion) ^ 

Acclimatization 

Phenology 

The  relation  of  a  plant  to  other 
plants,  and  to  animals,  may  be  con- 
sidered under  two  aspects : 

(a)  There  is  often  a  close  sympa- 
thetic relation  between  individual 
plants,  and  between  an  individual 
plant  and  animals.     See: 

Symbiosis 

Endophyte 

Epiphyte 

Parasite,  Plant 

Obligate  Plants 

Faculative  Plant 

Entomophilous  Plant 


Myrmecophytes 

Phycomycetes 

(6)   There  is  also  a  general  relation 
due  to  soil,  climate,  struggle  for  ex- 
istence, etc.,  between  large  numbers  of 
individuals  growing  together  and  con-  , 
stituting  what  are  known  as  plant  so-  ■ 
cieties.      See : 

Distribution  of  Plants 

Form 

Formation 

Forest 

Jungle 

Thicket 

Grasslands 

Savannas 

Steppe 

Prairie 

Llanos 

Pampas 

Meadow 

Tundra 

Swamp 

Mangrove  Swamp 

Cypress  Swamps 

The  nature  of  plant  societies  is  also 
largely  affected  by  the  vegetative  du- 
ration of  its  members.     See: 

Duration 

Annuals 

Biennials 

Perennials 

Mstiyal 

Vernal  Grass 

Deciduous  Plants 

Evergreen 

Geophyte 


D.   #pt?mattr  Ictang 


This  branch  of  the  science  of  Botany 
comprises  the  classification  of  plants, 
the  description  of  every  known  species 


and  of  the  larger  divisions — genera, 
families,  orders,  classes,  etc. — into 
which  all  species  are  grouped.       Sys- 


204 


BOTANY 


tematic  Botany  also  includes  the  study 
of  the  relationships  between  the  various 
groups  and  species  of  plants,  and  of 
their  geographical  distribution.  It  is 
obviously  impossible  here  to  refer  to  all 
the  articles  on  even  the  more  important 
genera;  but,  as  the  representative  gen- 
era of  each  order  are  referred  to  in 
the  article  on  the  order,  it  is  sufficient 
to  give  only  the  latter  and  the  higher 
groups.  For  a  general  article  on  sys- 
tematic botany,  see  Taxonomy. 

Tlie  whole  vegetable  kingdom  is  gen- 
erally divided  into  four  sub-kingdoms. 
See: 

Thallophytes 

Brj'ophytes 

Pteridophytes 

Spermatophytes 

I.  The  Thallophytes  are  divided  into 
two  parallel  series.     See: 
Algfe 
Fungi 

1.  The  Algae  are  generally  grouped 
into  four  classes.     See : 

Cyanophyceae 
Chlorophyceae 
Pliicophyceae 
RhodophycefE 

2.  For  the  main  divisions  of  the 
Fungi,  see: 

Myxomycetes 

Schizomycetes 

Ustilaginales 

Phycoinycetes 

Ascomycetes 

Urcdinales 

Basidioniycetes 

Lichens 

II.  The  Bryophytes  arc  grouped  in 
two  main  divisions.     See: 
Hepatica; 


Musci 

III.  The  living  Pteridophytes  fall 
into  three  main  groups,  the  last  two  of 
which  are  generally  called  "  the  higher 
fern."     See : 

Fern 

Equisetum 

Lycopodiales 

IV.  The  Spermatophytes,  or  seed- 
plants,  form  the  bulk  of  the  vegetation 
which  covers  the  earth.  They  are  di- 
vided into  two  classes.     See: 

Gymnosperms 
Angiosperms 

1.  The  living  Gymnosperms  are 
grouped  into  four  orders.     See: 

Coniferas 
Cycadaceffi 
Gnctaceae 
Ginkgo 

2.  The  Angiosperms  consist  of 
numerous  orders,  which  fall  into  two 
natural  sub-classes.      See : 

Monocotyledons 
Dicotyledons 
(a)    The  principal  oi'dcrs  of  Mon- 
ocotyledons   are    described   un- 
der: 

Pandanaceae 

Typha 

Gramineas 

Cyperaceae 

Palm 

Arum 

Bromeliaceae 

Liliace.-D 

Smilaccffi 

Amarj'llidaceaj 

Dioscorcacene 

Iridacca; 

MusacwE 

Zingiberaccx 

Orchid 


BOTANY 


205 


(fo)  Tlie  following  are  the  most 
important  orders  of  Dicotyle- 
dons, arranged  in  their  order  of 
relationship.  Important  genera 
of  orders  not  separately  de- 
scribed are  inserted  in  their 
proper  places. 

Archichlamydece : 

Mainly      Apetalous.        Chiefly 
Trees : 

Piperacese 

Juglandaceae 

Willow 

Poplar 

Birch 

Alder 

Cupuliferae 

Moraceae 

Urticacese 

Elm 
Chiefly  Weeds: 

Polygonaceffi 

Chenopodiaceas 

Amarantaceas 

Mesembryaceffi 

Caryophyllaceae 
Mainly  Polypetalous.       Butter- 
cup Types : 

Nympha'aceae 

Magnolia 

Ranunculaceae 

Berberidacese 

Lauraceje 
Poppy  Types : 

Papaveraceas 

Fumariaceae 

Cruciferse 
Insectivorous  Plants : 

Sarracenia 

Sundew 

Rose  Tj^ies : 
Saxifrage 


Plane 

Rosacea; 

Leguminosse 

Geranium  Types : 
Geranium 
Zygophyllaceae 
Polygala 
Euphorbiaceas 

Maple  Types : 
Burseraceffi 
Anacardiaceas 
Holly 
Maple 
Sapindaceas 
Horse-Chestnut 

Buckthorn  Types : 
Rhamnacese 
Vitaceae 

Mallow  Types: 
Tiliacese 
Malvacea2 

Violet  Types : 
Ternstroemiaceae 
Violaceae 

Cactus  Type: 
Cactus 

Myrtle  Types : 
Lythraceas 
Myrtacere 

Carrot  Types: 

Umbelliferffi 

Dogwood 
Sympetalct : 
Heath  Types : 

Ericacese 

Huckleberry 

Primrose  Type: 

Primulaceae 
Ebony  Types : 

Sapotaceffi 

Ebony 


206 


BOTANY 


■Gentian  Types: 
Loganiaceas 
Gentianaceae 
Apocynaceae 
Asclepiadaceae 

Phlox  Types : 
Convolvulaceae 
Polemoniaceae 
Boraginaceas 
Labiate 


Solanaceas 

Scrophulariaceae 

Bignonia 
Madder  Types : 

Rubiaeeae 

Caprifoliaceje 
Bell-Flower  Types : 

Cucurbitaceae 

Campanulacese 

Composite 


E.  &o«nmtr  Sntattg 


In  its  naiTow  sense,  viewed  as  a 
strictly  botanical  science,  economic  bot- 
any is  the  study  of  those  plants  which 
are,  or  can  be,  used  for  some  purpose 
in  human  economy.  If  we  inquire  fur- 
ther into  the  methods  by  which  these 
plants  are  made  available,  we  enter  upon 
the  fields  of  agriculture,  pharmacy,  me- 
chanical arts,  etc.  By  the  above  defini- 
tion, economic  botany  includes  a  study 
of  the  common  cultivated  plants,  such 
as  the  cereals,  but,  to  avoid  repeti- 
tion, the  cultivated  plants  are  re- 
ferred to  only  in  the  chapter  on  Agri- 
culture, Horticulture,  and  Forestry. 
We  shall  therefore  confine  ourselves 
here  to  the  articles  describing  the  im- 
portant wild,  or  not  commonly  culti- 
vated, economic  plants,  classified  ac- 
cording to  their  uses. 

I.  Plants  Used  for  Food: 

Adansonia 

Areca 

Banana 

Brazilnuts 

Breadfruit  Tree 

Butter-Tree 

Caryocar 

Caryota 


Cashew  Nut 

Cherimoyer 

Cocco 

Cocoanut 

Euryale 

Fungi,  Edible 

Granadilla 

Grass-Tree 

Hog-Plum 

Iceland  Moss 

Jubfsa 

Mammee  Apple 

Maple 

Melicocca 

Mushroom 

Nelumbo 

Palmyra  Palm 

Prickly  Pear 

Reindeer  IMoss 

Sago 

Tamarind 

Ti 

Walnut 

Water-Chestnut 

II.  Pl.\nts  User  in  Preparing  Bev- 
erages : 
Beverage  Plants 

Agave 
Assai 


BOTANY 


207 


III. 


IV. 


Ava 

Camwood 

Buriti  Palm 

Chay  Root 

Carrageen 

Fustic 

Elder 

Henna 

Mate 

Indigo 

Palmyra  Palm 

Logwood 

Sloe 

IMarking-Nut 

Woodruff 

Walnut 
Weld 

.  Plants  Used  as  Condiment  or 

Yam 

IN  Confectionery: 

Zamia 

Flavoring  Plants 

Anise 

VI.  Plants    Yielding    Gums, 

Wax, 

Caper 

Oils,  etc.: 

Cardamom 

Butea 

Cinnamon 

Calophyllum 

Coriander 

Canarium 

Gaultheria 

Candleberry 

Ginger 

Candle-Nut 

Guinea  Pepper 

Carnauba  Palm 

Jujube 

Cashew  Nut 

Juniper 

Dammar 

Laurel 

Elaeococca 

Licorice 

Fir 

Marjoram 

Grass-Tree 

Marsh-Mallow 

Mastic 

Mint 

Mesquite  Tree 

Pepper 

Oil  Palm 

Plants  Used  in  Perfumery: 

Pine 

Boswellia 

Tallow  Tree 

Lemon-Grass 

VII.  Plants  Yielding  Fibre  : 

Lignum  Rhodium 
Lily  of  the  Valley 

Agave 
Aloe 

Musk  Plant 

Myrrh 

Patchouli 

Astrocaryum 

Attalea 

Bromelia 

Vetiver 

Broom 

Plants  Yielding  Pigments: 

Butea 

Alkanet 

Carnauba  Palm 

Aloe 

Caryota 

Brazil  Wood 

Chamasrops 

Buckthorn 

Corchorus 

Butea 

Crotalaria 

208 


BOTANY 


Eriodenron 

Giant  Lily 

Gomuti 

Mauritia 

Neilgherry  Nettle 

Ootrum 

Piassaba 

Yucca 

VIII.  Plants  Used  for  Timber  and 
Cabinet  Wood: 

Ash 

Butternut 

Calophyllum 

Cedar 

Chittagong  Wood 

Cypress 

Dacrydium 

Dalbergia 

Elm 

Eucalyptus 

Fir 

Gmelina 

Greenheart 

Guaiacum 

Hemlock-Tree 

Hornbeam 

Ilex 

Lancewood 

Lime-Tree 

Mammee  Apple 

Maple 

Oak 

Palmetto 

Palmyra  Palm 

Pine 

Plane 

Podocarpus 

Spruce 

Tamarind 

Teak 

Toon 

Tulip  Tree 

Walnut 


IX.  Plants  Used   for   Ornamental 

Cabinet  Woods  : 
Aloes  Wood 
Ebony 
Holly 
Kiaboucca 
Letterwood 
Palmyra  Wood 
Rosewood 
Sandalwood 
Satinwood 

X.  Plants  Supplying  Various  Primi- 

tive Needs: 
Bottle-Gourd 
Bussu  Palm 
Calabash-Tree 
Daphne 
Nipa 

Palmyra  Palm 
Papyrus 
Rattan 

XI.  Plants   Used  Directly  in  In- 

dustrial Arts: 
Carludovica  Palmata 
Divi-Divi 
Ice-Plant 
Ivory,  Vegetable 
Myrobalan 
Oak 
Rattan 

XII.  Medicinal  Plants  : 
Aconite 

Acorns 

Adansonia 

Agrimony 

Akce 

Allamanda 

Aloe 

Alum  Root 

Angelica 

Angostura  Bark 

Aristolochia 

Arnica 


BOTAXY                                           209 

Asarabacca 

Andromeda 

Belladonna 

Belladonna 

Bittersweet 

Bittersweet 

Broom 

Bitterwood 

Butterfly-Weed 

Calabar  Bean 

Cajeput 

Cherry-Laurel 

Calabar  Bean 

Cocculus  Indicus 

Carrageen 

Colchicum 

Cascarilla 

Fungi,  Edible  and  Poisonous 

Cassia 

Hemlock 

Centaury 

Henbane 

Choke-Cherry 

Kalmia 

Cinchona 

Laburnum 

Cissampelos 

Manchineel 

Coca 

Nightshade 

Croton 

Poison  Oak 

Cubebs 

Stramonium 

Dill 

Sumach 

Dock 

Tanghin 

Dogbane 

Upas 

Elder 

Erigeron 

XIV.  Biographies  of  Eminent  Bot- 

Ergot 

anists  : 

Eucalyptus 

Adanson,  M. 

Feverwort 

Barton,  W.  P.  C. 

Gentian 

Bauhin,  J. 

Geum 

Bentham,  G. 

Guaiacum 

Bigelow,  J. 

Horehound 

Bonnier,  G. 

Houseleek 

Boussingault,  J.  B.  J.  D. 

Ipecacuanha 

Braun,  A. 

Jalap 

Brongniart,  A.  T. 

Licorice 

Browni,  R. 

Mint 

Brunfels,  0. 

IMyrrh 

Chapman,  A.  W. 

Poppy 

Cohn,  F.  J. 

Strychnos 

Darlington,  W. 

Witch-Hazel 

De  Candolle,  A.  L.  P.  P. 

Zanthoxylum 

Desfontaines,  R.  L. 

Eichler,  A.  W. 

XIII.  Poisonous  Plants  : 

Engler,  H.  G.  A. 

Poisonous  Plants 

Endlicher,  S.  L. 

Abrus 

Gray,  Asa 

Amanita 

Grew,  N. 

210 


BOTANY 


Hellriegel,  H. 
Hooker,  Sir  J.  D. 
Hooker,  Sir  W.  J. 
Jackson,  B.  D. 
Jussieu 

Ledebour,  K.  F.  de 
Lenne,  P.  J. 
Lindley,  J. 
Link,  H.  F. 
Linnseus,  Carolus 
Michaux,  A. 
Moll],  H.  von 
Morong,  Thomas 
Muhlenberg,  G.  H.  E. 
Necs  von  Esenbeck,  C.  G. 
Nuttall,  T. 


Persoon,  C.  H. 
PfefFer,  W. 
Plumier,  Charles 
Rafinesque,  C.  S. 
Sachs,  J.  von 
Saussure,  N.  T.  de 
Schleiden,  M.  J. 
Schultze,  M.  S. 
Schweinitz,  L.  D.  von 
Sullivant,  W.  S. 
Thunberg,  K.  P. 
Thurber,  George 
Torrey,  J. 
Tournefort,  J.  P.  de 
Unger,  F. 
Watson,  S. 


dliapt^r  21.    Agnniltur^,  ttt. 


THE  systematic  and  artificial  cultivation  of  plants  for  the  purpose  of 
supplying  human  necessities  or  luxuries  constitutes  the  arts  of 
Agriculture,  Horticulture,  and  Forestry,  or  the  cultivation  of  the 
field,  the  garden,  and  the  forest.  The  distinctions  between  these 
three  arts,  however,  are  not  so  definite  as  one  might  suppose,  and 
the  apportionment  among  tiicni  of  the  articles  dealing  with  plant  culture  will  be 
more  or  less  arbitrary.  Thus  Forestry  and  Horticulture  meet  in  the  arts  of 
Arboriculture  and  Landscape  Gardening.  The  products  of  Horticulture  are, 
as  a  rule,  luxuries  rather  than  necessities ;  but  the  raising  of  vegetables  for  the 
table,  although  they  are  almost  necessary  articles  of  food,  is  generally  treated 
under  Horticulture  rather  than  under  Agriculture.  The  latter  term  is  best  con- 
fined to  the  cultivation  on  a  large  scale  of  products  used  extensively  in  human 
economy,  and  this  distinction  will  be  the  basis  for  the  followipg  divisions  of  the 
whole  subject. 


A.   K^nmitnn 


Agriculture,  as  its  name  implies,  is 
the  cultivation  of  the  field,  mainly  for 
the  purpose  of  providing  a  regular 
supply  of  organic  food,  both  plant  and 
animal.  This  indicates  the  two  main 
divisions  of  farming,  namely,  the  rais- 
ing of  food  plants  and  the  raising  of 
animals.  The  former  is,  perhaps,  the 
more  complex  process,  requiring  a  more 
elaborate  equipment  of  tools  and  ma- 
chinery. It  involves  the  selection  and 
preparation  of  the  soil,  the  sowing  of 
the  seed,  the  care  of  the  growing  crop, 
the  prevention  and  cure  of  crop  dis- 
eases, and  the  harvesting,  manipula- 
tion, and  disposition  of  the  crop  when 
ripe.  The  raising  of  animals  involves 
their  selection  and  breeding,  the  feed- 
ing and  care  of  the  animals,  attention 
to  the  numerous  diseases  to  which  they 
are  subject,  and  the  manipulation  and 
disposition  of  animal  products,  includ- 
ing the  art  of  dairying.  In  connection 
with  both  branches  of  agriculture,  there 
is  the  general  management  of  the  farm 
and  its  equipment.     For  a  history  of 


the  development  of  agriculture  in  the 
various  countries,  see  the  article.  Agri- 
culture. 

I.  For  the  general  articles  on  the 
farm  and  its  equipment,  see: 

Farm  Buildings 

Barn 

Fence 

Implements,  Agricultural 

II.  The  preparation  of  the  soil  re- 
quires, first,  the  selection  of  a  soil  suited 
for  the  crop,  and  often  its  artificial 
fertilization ;  and,  second,  its  tillage 
and  irrigation. 

For  the  selection  of  soil,  see : 

Soil 

Humus 

Alkali  Soils 

Chernozem 

Gumbo  Soil 

Fallow 

Waste  Lands 

Rotation  of  Crops 
For  fertilization  and  fertilizers,  see: 

Chemistry,  Agricultural 


211 


212  AGRICULTURE,    HORTICULTURE,    FORESTRY 


Fertilizers 

Manures  and  Manuring 

Green  Manuring 

Nitrification 

Sewage  Farming 

Soil  Amendments 

Fish  Manures 

Bone  Fertilizers 

Guano 

Marl 

Compost 

Gypsum 

Poudrette 

Ammonite 

Lupine 

Thomas  Slag 

The  processes  of  tillage  are  described 
under : 
Tillage 
Cultivator 
Plow,  Plowing 

For  the  irrigation  and  drainage  of 
the  soil,  see : 
Irrigation 
Drainage 
Ditch 
Mulch 
Warping 
Lysimeter 

When  the  soil  has  been  prepared  and 
tilled,  the  seed  is  sown.     See : 
Seed  Testing 
Broadcasting 
Drill 
Harrow 

When  the  crop  is  ripe,  it  is  harvested 
and  prepared  for  the  market.     Sec: 
Harvest  and  Harvesting 
Reapers,  Reaping 
Threshing 
Iliunmelcr 
Fan,  or  Fanner 


III.  The  principal  crops  which  are 
the  subjects  of  agriculture  are,  of 
course,  the  food  plants,  and  of  these 
the  most  important  are  the  cereals. 
Other  plants,  however,  aside  from  those 
which  are  the  subjects  of  horticulture, 
are  also  regularly  cultivated,  such  as 
forage  plants  (see  under  Stock-Rais- 
ing  below),  and  plants  used  for  fibre 
and  various  other  purposes. 

For  the  principal  cereals,  see: 

Cereals 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Maize 

Millet 

Oat 

Rice 

Rye 

Wheat 
Other  food  crops  are : 

Artichoke 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem 

Bean 

Beet 

Cassava 

Cowpea 

Dolichos 

Gourd 

Lentil 

Pea 

Potato 

Pumpkin 

Sago 

Soy  Bean 

Sugar  Beet 

Sugar-Cane 

Sweet  Potato 

(For  vegetables  and  fruits,  sec  under 
section  on  Horticulture.) 
Plants  cultivated  for  fibre  arc: 

Bu'limcriu 

Cotton 


AGRICULTURE,    HORTICULTURE,    FORESTRY  213 


Flax 

Hemp 

Hemp,  Bowstring 

Hemp,  Manila 

Hemp,   Sisal 

Hemp,  Sunn 

Ramie 

Tobacco  is  also  an  important  agri- 
cultural crop.     See  article  Tobacco. 


IV.  The  care  of  the 


growi 


crop 


is  of  sufficient  importance  to  liave  sep- 
arate treatment,  and  the  study  and 
treatment  of  plant  diseases  is  a  science 
by  itself.  The  principal  cause  of 
plant  diseases  are  insects  and  fungi, 
and  almost  every  kind  of  crop  has  its 
specific  insect  pests.  These  are  all  de- 
scribed in  separate  articles  following 
the  articles  on  the  crops,  under  such 
titles  as  Cotton  Insects,  Rice  In- 
sects, etc.,  and,  therefore,  need  not 
be  enumerated  here.  The  general  arti- 
cles on  plant  diseases  and  their  treat- 
ment, and  on  diseases  common  to 
several  crops   are: 

Diseases  of  Plants 

Fungicides 

Insecticides 

Insect  Powder 

Mildew 

Blight 

Botrytis 

Canker 

Chlorosis 

Damping  Off 

Dodder 

Dry  Rot 

Ergot 

Gummosis 

Rust 

Smuts 

The    special    diseases    which    affect 
particular  crops  are  treated  in  the  ar- 


ticles on  the  separate  crops,  but  a  few 
are  described  in  separate  articles.     See : 

Bunt 

Cornstalk  Disease 

Crown-Gall 

Ear  Cockles 

Clubroot 

Oidium 

Some  of  the  common  weeds  with 
which  the  farmer  and  gardener  have 
to  contend  are  described  in  the  articles : 

Weed 

Atriplex 

Burdock 

Chickweed 

Chufa 

Cockle 

Chenopodium 

Orache 

Pigweed 

Tare 

V.  The  raising  of  live-stock  is  the 
second  great  department  of  agricul- 
ture, and  involves  the  selection  of  the 
animals,  their  breeding  and  general 
care,  a  supply  of  the  proper  feed 
stuffs ;  attention  to  diseases,  which  con- 
stitutes the  practice  of  veterinary  med- 
icine; and  the  preparation  of  the 
animal  products  for  the  market. 

The  most  important  animals  raised 
as  live-stock  are  described  in  the 
articles : 

Horse 

Cattle 

Mule 

Sheep 

Goat 

Hog 

Poultry 

Fowl 

Duck 

Goose 


214  AGRICULTURE,    HORTICULTURE,    FORESTRY 


Turkey 

Pigeon 

Bee 

For  the  breeding  and  general  care 
of  the  animals,  see: 

Breeds  and  Breeding 

Incubator 

Horseshoeing 

Hoof 

Dehorning 

Feeding  Farm  Animals 

Soiling,  Soiling  Crops 

Bee-Keeping 

Feeding  stuffs  may  be  divided  into 
two  general  classes,  natural  or  grow- 
ing forage  plants  and  the  more  or 
less  artificially  prepared  feeds.  The 
forage  plants  may  again  be  divided 
into  grasses  and  those  that  are  not 
grasses,  the  latter  being  largely  legu- 
minous plants.     See: 

Feeding  Stuffs 

Pasture 

Meadow 

For  forage  grasses,  see: 
Grasses 
Agropyron 
Andropogon 
Bermuda  Grass 
Blue  Grass 
Brome  Grass 
Buffalo-Grass 
Canary-Grass 
Crab-Grass 
Gama  Grass 
Manna-Grass 
Meadow  Grass 
Millet 
Oat  Grass 
Orchard  Grass 
Redtop  Grass 
Rye-Grass 
Sorghum 


Teosinte 
Timothy   Grass 

The   principal   forage   plants   other 
than  grasses  are: 

Alfalfa 

Burnet 

Chufa 

Clover 

Cowpea 

Fescue 

Lupine 

Mangel- Wurzel 

Medick 

Melilot 

Mesquite  Tree 

Rape 

Sainfoin 

Serradella 

Soy  Bean 

Sulla 

Trefoil 

Vetch 

For  the  most  important  prepared 
feeds,  see: 

Brewers'  Grains 

Gluten   Meal 

Hay 

Linseed  j\Ieal 

JNIalt  Sprouts 

Silage 

Wliey 

Farm  animals  are  subject  to  numer- 
ous serious  diseases,  and  the  investiga- 
tion and  treatment  of  these  constitute 
the  profession  of  veterinary  medicine. 
A  convenient  subdivision  of  animal 
diseases  is  according  to  the  kinds  of 
animals  which  tliey  affect,  since,  with 
a  few  exceptions,  each  disease  is  either 
peculiar  to,  or  chiefly  prevalent  in,  a 
particular  species.  Several  of  these 
given    under    cattle    diseases,    however. 


AGRICULTURE,    HORTICULTURE,    FORESTRY  215 


may  also  affect  horses  or  sheep,  and 
vice  versa. 

(a)  The  general  articles  on  the  sub- 
ject and  those  dealing  with  diseases 
common  to  sevci'al  kinds  of  live-stock 
are: 

Veterinary  Medicine 
Diseases  of  Animals 
Abortion     in     Animals     (under 

Abortion) 
Colic  in  Animals 
Ergotism 
Mange 

Tuberculosis    (in   animals) 
(6)   For   diseases    primarily    affect- 
ing the  horse,  see : 

Anthrax 
Bighcad 
Canker 
Curb 
Fistula 
Founder 
Glanders 
Heaves 
Hoof 

Influenza  in  Animals 
Meningitis 
Navicular  Disease 
Poll-Evil 
Roaring 
Strangles 
Thrush 
(c)   For  diseases  of  cattle,  see: 
Actinomycosis 
Blackleg 
Bloat 

Cattle  Plague 
Fardel-bound 
Foot-and-Mouth  Disease 
Joint-Ill 

IMalignant  Catarrh 
Mammitis 
Milk  Fever 


Pleuropneumonia 
Red  Water 
Texas  Fever 

(d)  For  diseases  of  sheep,  sec : 
Agalactia 
Bloat 
Braxy 

Fardel-bound 
Gid 

Icterohsematuria 
Liver-Rot 
Lung-Worms 
Nodular  Disease 

(f)  For  a  disease  of  hogs,  see: 
Hog  Cholera 

(/■)    For    diseases    of    poultry    and 
bees,  see: 

Blackhead 
Gapes 
Roup 
Foul  Brood 

VI.  In  the  preparation  of  animal 
products  for  the  mai'ket,  one  of  the 
most  elaborate,  as  well  as  important, 
departments  is  that  of  Dairying. 
This  industry  involves  the  supply  of 
milk  and  cream,  and  the  manufacture 
of  butter  and  cheese.  For  a  general 
article  on  the  subject  and  articles  on 
the  processes  of  manufacture,  and  the 
machinery  and  equipment  of  the  dairy, 
see: 

Dairying 

Milking   Machine 

Aerator 

Creamery 

Separator 

Butter-Making 

Churn 

Butter-Worker 

Butter-Color 

Cheese-Making 


216  AGRICULTURE,    HORTICULTURE,    FORESTRY 


Cheese  Factory 
Rennet 


For   the    principal    dairy    products, 
see: 
Milk 

Skim  Milk 
Casein 
Cream 
Butter 
Cheese 
Buttermilk 

Milk  Sugar  (under  Sugars) 
Ghee 
Kephir 
Koumiss 
Whey 

VII.  Other  more  or  less  direct  prod- 
ucts of  agriculture  and  stock  raising, 
and  the  methods  of  their  disposal,  are 
described  under: 

jMarket  and  Marketing 

Flour 

Farina 

Semolina 

Food 

Bread 

Sugar 

Honey 

Glucose 

IMeat 

Pork 

Leather 

Wool 

See  also  Poultry  and  Egg  and  the 
articles  there  referred  to. 


VIII.  Since  the  patriarchal  stage. 
Agriculture  has  been  regarded  as  the 
most  important  of  human  industries, 
and  is  the  one  which  has  especially  re- 
ceived direct  and  official  attention  from 
the  governments  of  civilized  nations. 
There  are  also  at  present  numerous 
educational  institutions,  and  private 
or  semi-public  associations  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  industry.      See: 

Agriculture,  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agricultural  Experiment  Stations 
Agricultural  Education 
Farmers'  Institute 
Agricultural  Association 
Grange 

IX.  For  biographies  of  eminent  ag- 
riculturists, see : 

Atwater,  W.  O. 
Brewer,  W.  H. 
Colman,  N.  J. 
Goessman,  C.  A. 
Goodcll,  H.  H. 
Harris,  J. 
Hatch,  W.  H. 
Hellricgel,   H. 
Hilgard,  E.  W. 
Holdcfleiss,  F.  W. 
Johnson,  S.  W. 
Judd,  O. 
Lawes,  J.  B. 
Thacr,  A.  D. 
True,  A.  C. 
Youatt,  W. 
Young,  A. 


B.    %mX\m{X\\xt  anb  3tiXtBXx\} 


Horticulture  is  the  art  of  producing 
plants  which  are  valued  for  their 
agreeable  properties  rather  than  as 
necessities  for  human  comfort.  The 
horticultural     methods     of     breeding, 


propagating,  and  cultivating  plants 
differ  essentially  from  the  agricultural 
method  In  that  great  attention  is  paid 
to  the  individual  plant,  while  in  agri- 
culture attention  is  given  to  the  crop 


AGRICULTURE,    HORTICULTURE,    FORESTRY  217 


as  a  whole,  in  which  the  individual  is 
lost.  The  subjects  and  products  of 
horticulture  are  flowers,  ornamental 
shrubs  and  trees,  fruit  trees,  plants 
used  as  condiments,  vegetables  for  the 
table,  when  considei'ed  merely  as  acces- 
sories to  the  more  substantial  articles 
of  food,  and  all  other  plants  treated 
by  horticultural  methods. 

Horticulture  also  concerns  itself 
with  the  laying  out  of  gardens,  and  in 
this  field  of  its  activity  it  merges  into 
landscape  gardening  and  forestry. 
The  latter,  however,  is  a  purely  eco- 
nomic art  and  is  not  a  branch  of  hor- 
ticulture. It  is  included  in  this  section 
because  it  is  not  yet  a  highly  complex 
art  and  is,  therefore,  treated  in  a  few 
general  articles.  For  the  general  arti- 
cles on  Horticulture  and  Forestry, 
see: 

Horticulture 

Floriculture 
Landscape  Gardening 
Arboriculture 
Forestry 
Afforestation 

I.  The  buildings  and  equipments 
used  by  the  horticulturist  are  described 
in  the  articles: 

Greenhouse 

Hothouse 

Conservatory 

Frame 

Espalier 

Hoe 

One  of  the  principal  aims  of  horti- 
culture is  to  develop  particularly  de- 
sirable varieties  of  plants  and  to  main- 
tain them  true  to  the  stock.  For  this 
purpose,  special  methods  of  breeding 
and  propagation  are  necessary.     See: 

Plant-Breeding 


Nursery 

Budding 

Cutting 

Grafting 

Layering 

Caprification 

Special  methods  are  also  necessary 
in  raising  tlie  young  plants  to  ma- 
turity and  securing  the  desired  quali- 
ties in  the  matured  product.     See: 

Forcing 

Bottom  Heat 

Electro-culture  of  Plants 

Pruning 

Cordon 

Blanching 

For  the  most  important  plants  cul- 
tivated in  greenhouses,  see : 

Greenhouse  Plants 

Abutilon 

Achimenes 

Banksia 

Carnation 

Fuchsia 

Gardenia 

Gladiolus 

Hyacinth 

Jerusalem  Cherry 

Mignonette 

Oleander 

Passion-Flower 

Pelargonium 

Vanda 

II.  The  principal  articles  on  gar- 
dens, ornamental  shrubs,  and  garden 
plants  are: 

Lawn 

Hedge 

Ampelopsis 

Azalea 

Canna 

Centaurea 

Chrysanthemum 


218  AGRICULTURE,    HORTICULTURE,    FORESTRY 


Convolvulus 
Cosmos 
Cotoneaster 
Cowslip 
Dahlia 

Eschscholtzia 
Heliotrope 
Hibiscus 
Hollyhock 
Hyacinth 
Hydrangea 
Ivy 

Jasmine 
Jonquil 
Laburnum 
.^  Larkspur 
Laurustinus 
Lavender 
Libocedrus 
Lilac 
Lily 

Lily  of  the  Valley 
Mignonette 
Narcissus 
Peony 
Petunia 
Phlox 
Pink 

Polyanthus 
Poppy 
Rose 

Star  of  Bethlehem 
Sunflower 
Sweet  Pea 
Thrift 
Tropjeolum 
Trumpet  Flower 
Tuberose 
Tulip 
Wallflower 
Wistaria 

in.  For   tlio    principal    articles    on 
fruit  trees  and   fruit  culture,  see: 


Fruit,  Cultivated 

Orchard 

Apple 

Apricot 

Banana 

Blackberry 

Butternut 

Calville 

Cherimoyer 

Chestnut 

Cranberry 

Currant 

Custard-Apple 

Date 

Dewberry 

Earthnut 

Fig 

Gooseberry 

Grape 

Hazelnut 

Huckleberry 

Kumquat 

Lemon 

Lime 

Litchi 

Loquat 

Mango 

Melon 

Mulberry 

Muskmelon 

Olive 

Orange 

Peach 

Peanut 

Pear 

Persimmon 

Pineapple 

Plum 

Pomegranate 

Quince 

Raspberry 

Strawberry 

Walnut 

Watermelon 


AGRICULTURE,    HORTICULTURE,    FORESTRY   219 


For  table  vegetables,  see : 
W'getables 
Herbs,  Culinary 
Salad  Plants 
Asparagus 
Brussels  Sprouts 
Cabbage 
Carrot 
Cauliflower 
Celery 
Corn-Salad 
Cress 
Cucumber 
Egg  Plant 
Endive 
Garlic 
Kale 

Kohl-rabi 
Leek 
Lettuce 
Mushroom 
Onion 
Parsley 
Parsnip 
Radish 
Rhubarb 
Salsify 
Spinach 
Squash 
Tomato 
Truffle 
Turnip 

V.  For   tlic   principal    plants   culti- 
vated for  their  flavoring  qualities,  see: 

'Flavoring    Plants 
Allspice 
Almond 
Capsicum 
Caraway 
Chicory 
Chive 
Cinnamon 
Citron 


Cloves 

Fennel 

Hop 

Horseradish 

Mace 

Mustard 

Nutmeg 

Pepper 

Pistacia 

Thyme 

Vanilla 

VI.  The  section  on  horticulture 
should  also  include  reference  to  the 
articles  on  the  well  known  beverage 
plants,  and  on  some  of  the  more  direct 
products  of  horticulture.     See: 

Coff'ee 

Tea 

Cacao 

Wine 

Cider 

Prune 

Raisins 

VII.  For  biographies  of  eminent 
horticulturists  and  foresters,  see: 

Bailey,  L.  H. 

Burbank,  L. 

Downing,  A.  J. 

Downing,  C. 

Duhamel  du  Monceau 

Henderson,  P. 

Hess,  R. 

Heyer,  G. 

Heyer,  K.  J. 

HoVey,    C.    M. 

Kenrick,   W. 

Koristka,  K.  von 

Landreth,  D. 

Lodeman,  E. 

Longworth,  N. 

Loudon,  J.  C. 

Lyon,  T.  T. 

Manning,  R. 

See  also  Horticultukai.  Societies. 


OII|itpt^r  22.    200l0gg 


E^'ERY  topic  of  importance  in  Natural  History,  especially  as  repre- 
sented in  America,  is  contained  in  the  pages  of  the  New  Interna- 
tional Encyclopadia,  which  thus  may  justly  be  called  a  complete 
text-book  of  zoology.  The  outline  of  our  knowledge  of  animal 
life  thus  furnished  is  supplemented,  in  respect  to  each  part  of  it, 
by  references  to  special  books,  museum  collections,  and  other  sources  of  knowledge 
where  the  student  may  find  the  minute  details  and  investigations  interesting  and 
necessary  to  the  specialist,  but  superfluous  to  a  general  reader.  The  material 
contained  in  the  Encyclopttdia  is  thus  equally  useful  to  the  deep  and  to  the  super- 
ficial inquirer ;  for  the  specialist  in  one  department  of  science  needs  to  have  at 
hand  general  information,  at  least,  as  to  other  departments. 

Zoology  has  two  aspects:  (a)  that  of  its  observed  facts;  and  (b)  that  of 
the  principles  involved :  phenomena  and  deductions ;  condition  and  theory.  The 
foremost  or  basic  part  is  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  the  animal  world,  namely : 
Form  and  Structure;  Reproduction,  Embryology  and  Growth;  Habit;  Instinct; 
Distribution,  past  and  present ;  Relationship,  of  animals  to  one  another,  and  to 
their  environment.  From  these  have  been  deduced  the  facts  of  the  Classification 
and  Evolution  of  forms. 


Structure. 

Cephalization 

The   reader  who   seeks 

to   take   the 

Metamerism 

topics  dealing  with  Form 

and   Struc- 

Integument 

ture    in  order  may  read  the  following 

Horn 

articles : 

Hoof 

Biology 

Nail 

]\Iorphology 

Teeth 

Animal 

Hair 

Protoplasm 

Feather 

Cell 

Pterylosis 

Amoeba 

Scales 

Embryology 

Pigment 

Anatomy 

Metachrosis 

Bone 

Chromatophore 

Skeleton ;   and   the   more   particular 

Melanism 

accounts  of  its  component  parts, 

Touch                                                  a- 

as     Skui>i>,     Hand, 

Shoulder- 

Taste 

.JOINT,  etc. 

Smell 

Muscular  System 

Eye 

Circubdory  System 

Ear 

Alimentary   System 

The    structure   of   various    animals. 

Excretory  System 

as  characteristic  of  groups,  is  given  in 

Respiratory   System 

such  gciural  articles  as: 

Nervous  System  and  Brain 

Aniblypoda 

220 


ZOOLOGY 


221 


Ammonites 

Amphibia 

Annulata 

Arachnida 

Archa'optcryx 

Bat 

Beetle 

Bird 

Bovidae 

Butterflies  and  Moths 

Braehiopoda 

Camehdas 

Canida? 

Carnivora 

Cephalopoda 

Cestoda 

Chordata 

Coelenterata 

Coral 

Crinoidea 

Crustacea 

Deer 

Dinosauria 

Dipnoi 

Echinodermata 

Elasmobranchii 

Electric  Fish 

Felida2 

Fish 

Fly 

Fringillidas 

Frog 

Ganoidei 

Gastropoda 

Holothurian 

Horse,    Evolution    of    the     (under 

Horse,  Fossil) 
Hydrozoa 
Hymcnoptera 
Infusoria 
Insect 
Mammalia 
Marsupialia 
Medusa 


Mollusca 

Ophiuroidea 

Prototheria 

Protozoa 

Pterodactyl 

Pteropoda 

Reptile 

Rodentia 

Sirenia 

Snake 

Tui-tle 

Ungulata 

Vertebrata 

For  the  most  part,  the  articles  re- 
ferred to  contain,  incidentally  or  cited 
in  the  appended  Bibliography,  the 
names  of  investigators  identified  with 
these  particular  subjects.  In  the  great 
majority  of  cases  the  biography  of 
each  of  these  men  is  to  be  found  in  its 
alphabetical  position  in  the  Encyclo- 
psedia ;  and  an  earnest  reader  will  turn 
to  it,  and  so  acquaint  himself  with 
the  man  by  whose  learning  he  is 
profiting. 
Reproduction  and  Growth. 

Animals  continue  to  exist  by  repro- 
ducing their  kind  after  various  methods, 
and  each  individual  passes  through  a 
more  or  less  complicated  series  of 
changes  from  its  beginning  to  its  ma- 
turity, collectively  known  as  its  life- 
history,  or  autogeny.  An  orderly  study 
of  this  essential  phase  of  animal  life 
may  be  conducted  by  reading  the  ar- 
ticles mentioned  below,  with  the  lesser 
ones  indicated  by  cross-references : 

Reproduction 

Spontaneous  Generation 

Egg 

Spermatozoon 

Gemmule 

Sex 

Embryology 


222 


ZOOLOGY 


Foetus 

Epigenesis 

Mitosis 

Parthenogenesis 

Alternation  of  Generations 

Biogenesis 

Cross-fertilization 

JVIetaniorpliosis 

Larva 

Pupa 

Metabolism 

Growth 

Regeneration 

Heredity 

Pangenesis 

Prepotency 

Telegony 

Hermaphroditism   (under  Sex) 

Breeds  and  Breeding 

Hybridity 

Nidification 

Habits. 

The  habits  of  animals  constitute  the 
principal  feature  of  what  may  be 
called  Descriptive  Zoology — that  is, 
accounts  of  a  species  or  a  group  of 
species  placed  under  the  vernacular 
name.  This  policy  has  been  adopted, 
rather  than  that  of  putting  descrip- 
tions under  technical  names,  for  greater 
convenience  of  reference,  as  well  as  to 
avoid  that  attitude  of  pedantry  which 
made  the  earlier  encyclopa'dias  often 
ridiculous.  The  majority  of  readers 
would  turn  more  naturally  to  Hokse 
than  to  "  Equida' "  or  to  Bi.acksnake 
than  to  "  Zamcnis."  The  teclmical 
characteristics  of  many  of  the  larger 
groups,  lacking  any  English  appella- 
tive, are  given  under  their  term  in 
classification,  as  Protozoa,  Bovid.?;, 
and  the  like,  or  sometimes  under  the 
name    of    the    special    science    dealing 


with  them,  as  Ichthyology,  Oeni- 
THOLOGY.  Habits  of  animals,  then, 
may  be  learned  from  the  descriptive 
articles  generally,  the  principal  of 
which  are  given  below: 

Agate  Shell 

Agouti 

Albatross 

Alewife 

Alligator 

Anaconda 

Ani 

Ant 

Antelope 

Ant-lion 

Aoudad 

Apteryx 

Armadillo 

Ass 

Auk 

Aurochs 

Axolotl 

Aye-aye 

Baboon 

Badger 

Bandicoot 

Bank  swallow 

Barn-owl 

Barn-swallow 

Bass 

Bat 

Bear 

Beaver 

Bedbug 

Bee 

Bighorn 

Bird  of  Paradise 

Bison 

Bittern 

Blackl)ird 

Blacksnake 

Bluebird 

Bluefish 

Boa 


ZOOLOGY 


223 


Bobolink 

Bollworm 

Bookworm 

Bot 

Bower-bird 

Brant 

Buffalo-bird 

Bug 

Bulbul 

Bumblebee 

Bunting 

Bushmaster 

Bustard 

Buttcrfish 

Butterflies 

Buzzard 

Caddis-fly 

Camel 

Capercaillie 

Capybara 

Caribou 

Carp 

Carpenter  Bee 

Cat 

Cattle 

Cave   Animals 

Cavy 

Chameleon 

Chamois 

Chinch-bug 

Cicada 

Civet 

Clam 

Clothes-moth 

Cockatoo 

Cockroach 

Cod 

Codling  Moth 

Condor 

Copperhead 

Cowbird 

Coyote 

Crab 

Cricket 


Crocodile 

Crow 

Cuckoo 

Curlew 

Death  Adder 

Deathwatch 

Deer 

Devilfish 

Dingo 

Dodo 

Dog 

Dove 

Dragon-fly 

Duck 

Duckbill 

Dugong 

Duiker 

Eagle 

Earthworm 

Eel 

Eider 

Elephant 

Electric  Fish 

Ermine 

Falcon 

Fer-de-lance 

Firefly 

Fish-hawk 

Flamingo 

Flea 

Flesh-fly 

Fly 

Fly-catcher 

Flying  Squirrel 

Fox 

Frog 

Gall-insects 

Gannet 

Garefowl 

Gazelle 

Gibbon 

Gipsy  jMoth 

GirafFe 

Gnat 


224 


ZOOLOGY 


Goat 

Goldfinch 

Goose 

Gopher 

Gorilla 

Goshawk 

Grayling 

Grebe 

Grouse 

Guanaco 

Gull 

Halibut 

Hare 

Hawk 

Hedgehog 

Hermit  Crab 

Heron 

Herring 

Hessian  Fly 

Hippopotamus 

Hognose 

Homing  Pigeon 

Hornbill 

Horse 

Hound 

House-fly 

Humming-bird 

Hyena 

Ibex 

Ibis 

Iguana 

Jackal 

Jackdaw 

Jaguar 

Jay 

Jelly-fish 

Jungle  Fowl 

Kangaroo 

Katydid 

King-bird 

Kingfish 

Kingfisher 

Kraken 

Lace-bug 


Lamprey 

Land  Tortoise 

Leech 

Lemming 

Lemur 

Leopard 

Lion 

Lizard 

Llama 

Lobster 

Lory 

Louse 

Lungfish 

Mackerel 

Mallard 

Mammalia 

Mammoth 

Manatee 

Man-eater  Shark 

Marsh  Hawk 

Marten 

Maskinonge 

Mastodon 

Menhaden 

Mole 

Monkey 

Moose 

Mosquito 

Moth 

Mound-bird 

Mouse 

Mule  Deer 

IMungoos 

Musk  Ox 

Muskrat 

Narwhal 

Nest 

Nightingale 

Nightjar 

Nurse-frog 

Nutria 

Opossum 

Orang-utan 

Oriole 


ZOOLOGY 


225 


Ostrich 

Sardine 

Otter 

Sawfish 

Owl 

Scale  Insect 

Oyster 

Scorpion 

Palolo  Worm 

Sea-anemone 

Parrakeet 

Sea-bass 

Parrot 

Sea-horse 

Partridge 

Seal 

Peacock 

Sea-otter 

Pheasant 

Sea-urchin 

Pigeon 

Shark 

Pipa 

Sheep 

Pipefish 

Sheepshcad 

Plant-bug 

Shore-birds 

Plover 

Shrew 

Polecat 

Shrike 

Pompano 

Shrimp 

Porcupine 

Silkworm 

Porpoise 

Skunk 

Potato  Insects 

Skylark 

Prairie  Dog 

Sloth 

Ptarmigan 

Smelt 

Puma 

Snail 

Python 

Snake 

Quagga 

Snipe 

Quail 

Spaniel 

Quinnat  Salmon 

Sparrow 

Rabbit 

Spider 

Raccoon 

Sponge 

Rail 

Sporozoa 

Rat 

Squid 

Rattlesnake 

Squirrel 

Raven 

Starfish 

Ray 

Stickleback 

Rhinoceros 

Stork 

Road-runner 

Sturgeon 

Robin 

Sunfish 

Rocky  IMountain  White  Goat 

Swallow 

Roe  Deer 

Swan 

Rook 

Swift 

Sable 

Swine 

Salamander 

Tailor-bird 

Salmon 

Tanager 

Sandpiper 

Tapeworm 

226 


ZOOLOGY 


Tapir 

Tarantula 

Tautog 

Termite 

Terrapin 

Terrier 

Thread-worms 

Thrush 

Tick 

Tiger 

Tiger-hunting 

Tilefish 

Titmouse 

Toad 

Toucan 

Tree-frog 

Trogon 

Trout 

Tsetse-fly 

Turbot 

Turkey 

Turtle 

Umbrella-bird 

Vampire 

Veery 

Viper 

Virco 

Viscacha 

Vulture 

Walrus 

Wapiti 

Warbler 

Wasp 

Watcrsnake 

Water-tlirush 

Wax-insect 

Weakfish 

Weasel 

Weaver-bird 

Weevil 

Whale 

Wliippoorwill 

Wildcat 

Wolf 


Woodpecker 

Wood-rat 

Worm 

Wren 

Yak 

Zebra 

Mind  in  Animals. 

The  intelligence  and  mental  processes 
of  animals  are  subjects  to  which  much 
attention  has  been  paid  recently,  and 
facts  bearing  upon  them  are  eagerly 
sought.  Information  may  be  gained 
from  man}'  descriptive  articles ;  and 
some  of  the  conclusions  of  students  will 
be  found  in  the  following : 

Ant 

Nervous   System,   Evolution   of  the 

Habit 

Social  Insects   (under  Insect) 

Orientation 

DiSTRIBrTION   OF   AnIMALS. 

Everyone  is  aware  that  different 
parts  of  the  earth's  surface  have 
different  faunas,  and  that  this  con- 
dition apparently  remains  permanent, 
except  when,  by  means  of  civilization 
or  commerce,  certain  animals  ai'e  en- 
abled to  spread  beyond  their  natural 
habitat,  and  even  become  cosmopolitan, 
as  have  rats,  house-mice,  the  Euro- 
pean house-sparrow,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  plant-feeding  insects.  Nor- 
mally one  fauna  does  not  enlarge  or 
diminish  at  the  expense  of  another, 
and,  for  the  most  part,  species  of  ani- 
mals, as  of  plants,  are  restricted  to  a 
comparatively  small  range  and  set  of 
climatic  conditions.  The  local  faunas, 
both  on  the  land  and  in  the  sea,  have 
been  examined,  and  their  boundaries 
well  ascertained.  It  has  been  found, 
however,  that  groups  of  related  faunas 


ZOOLOGY 


227 


exist  side  by  side,  which  may  be  com- 
posed into  large  divisions  called  "  sub- 
regions,"  and  these  into  a  few  still 
larger  ones  called  "  regions."  The 
natural  barriers  which  are  set  to  the 
dispersion  of  animals,  and  the  finding 
of  the  actual  boundaries  of  the  faunal 
districts,  form  the  outlines  of  the 
highly  interesting  study  of  the  geo- 
graphical distribution  of  animal  life, 
past  and  present.  To  acquaint  him- 
self with  this  science,  the  reader  should 
peruse  the  following  co-related  articles : 

Distribution  of   Animals 

Fauna 

Ethiopian  Region 

Paleotropical  Region 

Holarctic  Region 

Nearctic  Region 

Oriental  Region 

Palearctic  Region 

Deep-sea  Exploration 

Pelagic  Animals 

Plankton 

See  also  the  names  of  the  various 
subregions,  as  New  Zealand  Sub- 
KEGiON,  Malagasy  Subregion,  etc. ; 
the  paragraphs  on  Fauna  under  the 
names  of  the  various  continents  and 
countries,  as  America,  Australia, 
Brazil,  and  the  like ;  and,  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  animals  in  past  ages, 
Paleontology  and  Extinction  of 
Species. 

Relationship. 

The  relationship  of  animals  toward 
others,  and  to  the  environment  of  each 
individual,  species,  or  group,  forms  a 
feature  of  far-reaching  importance 
and  of  great  interest  in  zoology,  and 
the  study  of  the  facts  involved  has  been 
set  apart  as  a  science  under  the  name 
of    Bionomics.     Much    relating   to   it 


will  be  found  in  the  descriptive  articles 
cited  under  Habits  and  elsewhere,  but 
special  consideration  is  given  under 
the  succeeding  heads : 

Bionomics 

Cave  Animals 

Environment 

Estivation 

Flowers  and  Insects 

Hibernation 

Social  Insects  (under  Insect) 

Natural  Selection 

Orientation 

Parasite 

Symbiosis 

Tropism 

The  relations  between  man  and  the 
lower  animals  are  mainly  those  of  war- 
fare or  service.  Animals  are  in  the 
way  of  his  operations  or  dangerous  to 
him,  and  must  be  got  rid  of,  or  supply 
him  with  flesh,  or  hide,  or  fur,  or  some 
other  desirable  thing,  which  can  be  ob- 
tained, in  most  cases,  only  by  killing 
them ;  or  they  attract  him  to  the  chase 
and  to  such  sports  as  angling  and 
shooting.  Hence,  many  are  sought 
only  to  be  killed,  and  some  species 
have  been  entirely  exterminated.  On 
the  other  hand,  his  agricultural  opera- 
tions have  encouraged  the  spread  and 
development  of  some,  as  various  insects, 
rats,  etc.,  in  a  remarkable  way.  A  third 
class  has  been  utilized  by  domestication 
and  turned  to  his  service  and  benefit. 
Some  articles  of  special  moment  in  the 
Encyclopasdia  dealing  with  this  sport- 
ing and  economic  aspect  of  natural  his- 
tory are  these: 

Acclimatization 
Angling 
Buffalo 
Caee-Birds 


228 


ZOOLOGY 


Domestic  Animals  (and  the  various 
kinds,  as  Camel,  Cat,  Dog,  Horse, 
Sheep,  Fowl,  etc.) 

Extinct  Animals 

Falconry 

Fish  as  Food 

Fish  Culture 

Fisheries 

Fishing 

Fur  and  the  Fur  Trade 

Game  Laws 

Game  Preserve 

Insects,  Propagation  of  Disease  by 

Introduced  Species  (especially  of 
injurious  insects,  such  as  those 
described  under  Bollworm,  Cut- 
worm, Chinch-bug,  Pear  Insects, 
etc.) 

Mosquito 

Oyster 

Pearl 

Prairie  Dog 

Rabbit 

Seal 

Silkworm 

Taxidermy 

Methods  of  Study. 

The  methods  of  study  in  natural  his- 
tory arc  described  to  some  extent  in  the 
articles : 

Deep-sea  Exploration 

Laboratory 

Microscope 

Morj)hology 

Nature-Study 

Psychological  Apparatus 

Zoological  Garden 

Zoological  Station 

Classification  of  Animals. 

Turning  now  from  the  methods  and 
facts  of  observation  and  experiment  to 
the  philosophical  deductions, — the  prin- 
ciples and  theories  drawn  from  these 


facts, — the  reader  will  first  need  to  at- 
tend to  the  subject  of  classification, 
which  has  been  slowly  developed 
through  a  long  series  of  errors  and  lim- 
itations and  gradually  corrected  in  the 
brightening  light  of  growing  knowl- 
edge. The  history  of  this  search  for 
the  true,  because  natural,  classification 
may  be  found  in  the  articles  Anatomy, 
Classification  of  Animals,  and 
Zoology,  with  the  names  of  the  men 
who  from  time  to  time  notably  ad- 
vanced taxonomy,  and  whose  biog- 
raphies may  be  read.  No  real  success 
was  achieved  until  the  modern  convic- 
tion was  arrived  at,  that  the  key  to  the 
problem  of  classification  was  to  be 
found  in  community  of  descent,  and 
that  any  true  classification  must  follow 
the  perception  of  genetic  relationship 
— descent  from  a  common  ancestor. 
This  is  the  basis  of  modem  classifica- 
tion, and  what  we  have  approaches 
perfection  in  just  the  degree  that  the 
phylogeny  of  each  group  is  rightly 
apprehended.  As  a  result  of  the  con- 
stant increase  of  knowledge,  the  ar- 
rangement of  this  group  and  that  is 
constantly  being  modified  and  presum- 
ably always  improved.  From  time  to 
time,  these  amendments  are  gathered  up 
and  critically  combined  into  a  general 
scheme.  The  latest  such  scheme  of 
classification  of  the  whole  animal  king- 
dom, which  is  authoritative  and  at  the 
same  time  generally  accessible,  is  that 
contained  in  Parker  and  Haskell's 
Text-book  of  Zoology/,  and  this  has 
been  followed  in  respect  to  the  general 
outline  in  this  Encyclopa'dia,  insuring 
uniformity.  For  further  details,  con- 
sult: 

Classification  of  Animals 
Phylogeny 


ZOOLOGY 


229 


Variation 

Type 

Zoology 

For  the  classification  of  separate 
groups,  see  their  titles,  as  Ccelenter- 
ATA,  Crustacea,  Mollusca,  Echino- 

DEEMATA,  etC. 

Zoology  and  Evolution. 

The  philosophical  part  of  zoology 
has  been  developed  since  man  began  to 
observe  the  ways  of  nature,  and  has 
produced  a  vast  body  of  "  laws,"  doc- 
trine, and  speculation,  the  history  of 
which  is  sketched  in  such  general  arti- 
cles as  Anatomy,  Zoology,  Evolu- 
tion, etc.,  and  the  biographies  of  the 
great  thinkers  cited  should  be  read  in 
connection  witli  their  themes.  Science 
has  constantly  tended  to  separate  itself 
from  metaphysics,  and  to  use  its  hy- 
pothesis merely  as  a  means  for  furtlicr 
investigation  of  phenomena.  The  out- 
come has  been  the  formulation  and 
general  acceptance  of  a  theory  of  uni- 
versal development  from  the  simple  to 
the  complex,  from  the  homogeneous  to 
the  specialized ;  and  Organic  Evolution 
or  the  Doctrine  of  Descent  is  the  ap- 
plication of  the  general  principle  to 
the  history  and  phenomena  of  living 
things.  A  reader  who  wishes  to  ac- 
quire a  knowledge  of  these  views  of 
nature  may  do  so  by  reading  in  con- 
secutive order  the  articles  named  below : 

Biology 

Evolution 

Ontogeny 

Phylogeny 

Darwin 

Natural  Selection 

Lamarck  (biography) 

Lamarckism 

Growth 


Heredity 

Hybridity 

Guided  by  these  articles  and  the 
cross-references  to  be  found  in  them, 
he  may  pursue  the  subject  under  other 
fruitful  titles,  such  as : 

Botany 

Cross-fertilization 

Degeneration  as  a  Factor  in  Evolu- 
tion 

Embryology 

Environment 

Flowers  and  Insects 

Isolation 

Kinetogenesis 

Longevity 

iVIechanics  of  Development 

Mimicry 

Neo-Darwinism 

Neo-Lamarckisni 

Otter  Sheep 

Pollination 

Polymorphism 

Protective  Coloration 

Recognition  Marks 

Regeneration 

Reversion 

Senescence 

Sex 

Sexual  Selection 

Sport 

LTse-Inheritance 

Variation 

Warning  Coloration 

Weismannism 

Biography. 

Onh'  a  name  or  two  has  been  quoted 
in  the  preceding  analysis  of  the  science 
of  zoology.  The  investigators  in  the 
field  have  been  numerous,  and  the  fol- 
lowing list  should  be  regarded  as  se- 
lected rather  than  complete.      See : 

Agassiz,  L. 


230 


ZOOLOGY 


Audubon,  J.  J. 

Baer,  K.  E. 

Baird,  S.  F. 

Balfour,  F.  M. 

Barry,  M. 

Bates,  H.  W. 

Beecher,  C.  E. 

Bennett,  J.  H. 

Bichat,  M.  F.  X. 

Blunienbach,  J.  F. 

Bory  de  Saint  Vincent,  J.  B. 

Buffon,  G.  L.  L. 

Burmeister,  H. 

Camper,  P. 

Carus,  K.  G. 

Castolnau,  F. 

Clark,  H.  J. 

Cope,  E.  D. 

Coste,  J.  V. 

Cuvier,  G.  L.  C. 

Dana,  J.  D. 

Darwin,  C. 

Davenport,  C.  B. 

Degeer,  K. 

Dohrn,  A. 

Du  Bois-Rcymond,  E.  H. 

Dujardin,  F. 

Eimer,  T. 

Eschsclioltz,  J.  F. 

Fleming,  J. 

Flourens,  M.  J.  P. 

Forel,  A. 

Galton,  F. 

Gay,  C. 

Gegenbaur,  K. 

Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire,  E. 

Gcsncr,  K. 

Goode,  G.  B. 

Gould,  A.  A. 

Gould,  J. 

Graaf,  R.  de 

Green,  S. 

Hacckcl,  E. 

Hallcr,  A. 


Harvey,  W. 
Hertwig,  O. 
Hertwig,  R. 
Huber,  F. 
Humboldt,  A. 
Hunter,  J. 
Hux%,  T.  H. 
Hyatt,  A. 
Jordan,  D.  S. 
Kolliker,  A. 
Lamarck,  J.  B. 
Lang,  A. 
Lankester,  E.  R. 
Le  Conte,  L. 
Le  Conte,  J.  E. 
Le  Conte,  J.  L. 
Leeuwenhoek,  A. 
Leidy,  J. 
Lesueur,  C.  A. 
Leuckart,  R. 
Levaillant,  F. 
Leydig,  F. 
Linna?us,  C. 
Loeb,  J. 
Lubbock,  J. 
Lyonnet,  P. 
RLalpighi,  M. 
Marsli,  O.  C. 
Milne-Edwards,  H. 
Mivart,  St.  George 
Miiller,  J. 
]\Iuller,  J.  F.  T. 
Orbigny,  A.  D.  d' 
Osborn,  H.  F. 
Owen.  Uicliard 
Packard,  A.  S. 
Pallas,  P.  S. 
Perty,  J.  A.  M. 
Ray,  J. 

Hoaumur,  R.  A.  F. 
Rcimurus,  H.  S. 
Romanes,  G.  J. 
Ross,  A.  M. 
Roux,  W. 


ZOOLOGY 


231 


Schleiden,  M.  J. 
Schultze,  M.  S. 
Schwann,  T. 
Sedgwick,  W.  T. 
Semper,  K. 
Siebold,  K.  T.  E. 
Spallanzani,  L. 
Spencer,  H. 


Swammcrdam,  J. 
Tschudi,  J.  J. 
Vries,  H.  de 
Wagner,  M. 
Wallace,  A.  R. 
Weisniann,  A. 
Wilson,  A. 
Wyman,  J. 


23.    ilanufartur^B  ani  lEngtu^^rtttg 


THE  development  of  manufacturing  industries  has  resulted  from 
more  efficient  economic  organization,  and  from  the  perfection  of 
technological  processes  involving  the  application  of  scientific  dis- 
coveries and  knowledge.  Accordingly,  the  most  profitable  method 
of  study  is  first  to  consider  the  development  of  manufactures  in 
general  from  the  economic  standpoint,  and  especially  of  the  Factory  System, 
where  concentration  permits  of  manufacture  in  increagcd  quantities  at  diminished 
expense.  This  will  be  found  treated  in  the  articles  on  Factories  and  Machin- 
ery, Economic  Effects  of,  in  which  is  traced  the  growth  of  manufacturing  in 
general.  For  specific  industries,  reference  should  be  made  to  the  separate  articles, 
as  the  historical  and  statistical  development  of  any  given  industry  is  best  con- 
sidered by  itself,  on  account  of  the  important  relation  that  it  bears  to  practical 
questions  of  material,  processes,  and  the  like.  Tliis  brings  us  straightway  to  the 
leading  question  how  things  are  made,  which  it  is  an  important  function  of  an 
encyclop<'edia  to  answer.  In  this  is  involved  the  gathering  and  prepai'ation  of 
the  raw  material,  the  manufacture,  the  finishing,  and  the  chstribution,  or  utiliza- 
tion, of  the  finished  product.  There  are  prepared  below  a  number  of  lists  of 
subjects,  more  or  less  cognate,  dealing  with  manufacturing  industries  and  their 
products,  and,  by  carefully  observing  the  cross-references,  a  complete  idea  of  the 
more  important  processes  may  be  gained. 

A.  mattitfarturtitg  Jprnrrssrs 


Food    and    Manufacture    of    Food 
Stuffs,  etc. 

An  important  field  of  manufacturing 
operations  is  that  concerned  with  the 
preparation  of  food  stuff's,  both  in  the 
factory  and  on  a  less  extensive  scale  in 
the  home.  Cookery;  Food,  Preser- 
vation of  ;  Slaughter  Houses  ;  and 
Packing  Industry  are  titles  that  sug- 
gest the  wide  range  of  subjects  that 
may  be  grouped  under  such  a  head. 
The  following  list  indicates  appropri- 
ate titles: 

Meat 

Slaughter  Houses 
Packing  Industry 
Food,  Preservation  of 


Digester 


Extract  of  Meat 

Ham 

Lard 

Tallow 

Pemican 

Jerked  Beef 

Cookery 

Wlieat 

Flour 

Baking 

Bread 

Biscuit 

Baking  Powder 

Butter 

Cheese 

Guarana 

Macaroni 

Sugar 

Sardine 


232 


MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING        233 


Gelatin 

Confectionery 

Chocolate 

Cocoa  Butter 

Chewing  Gum 

Macaroon 

Condiments 

Pickles 

Chutnee 

Curry  Powder 

Olive  Oil 

Fermented  and  Distilled  LiaroRS. 

The  manufacture  of  Beer,  Wine, 
and  Liquors  involves  many  interesting 
processes  in  chemical  technology.  A 
convenient  beginning  may  be  made  by 
considering  the  history  of  fermented 
and  distilled  liquors,  and  the  extent  to 
which  they  are  manufactured  and  con- 
sumed. Then,  taking  up  the  general 
properties  of  beer,  wine,  and  distilled 
liquors,  a  classification  of  these  bever- 
ages can  be  made,  and  the  essential 
features  of  their  production  learned. 
Further  details  appi'opriate  to  the 
manufacture  are  discussed  under 
Brewing,  Still,  Bottling  and  Bot- 
tling Machinery,  while  questions  in- 
volving the  chemistry  of  the  subject 
are  treated  under  Fermentation,  Dis- 
tillation, and  Alcohol.  The  physi- 
ological effects  of  alcohol  are  not  only 
interesting,  but  instructive,  and  are 
properly  considered  in  connection  with 
the  manufacture  of  alcoholic  bever- 
ages. For  a  comprehensive  study  of 
the  whole  subject,  the  following  arti- 
cles should  be  consulted : 

Liquors,    Fermented     and    Distilled, 

Statistics  and  History  of 
Alcohol 
Alcoholometry 
Hydrometer 


Alcohol,   Physiological   and  Poison- 
ous Action  of 
Fermentation 
Brewing 
Beer 
Wine 

Currant  Wine 

Distilled  Liquors,  or  Ardent  Spirits 
Distillation 
Brandy 
Apple  Brandy 
Rum 
Whisky 
Fusel  Oil 
Geneva 
Gin 

Liqueur 
Absinthe 
Benedictine 
Chartreuse 
Cura^oa 
Kirsch 
Kiimmel 
Maraschino 
Ratafia 
Noyau 
Bishop 
Cider 

Berlin  Spirit 
Bottling  and  Bottling  Machinery 

Fibres  and  Textiles. 

The  subject  of  fibres  and  textiles  is 
one  of  novel  scope  and,  for  its  proper 
comprehension,  requires  first  the  con- 
sideration of  the  fibres  themselves  and 
how  they  are  produced  and  prepared 
for  manufacture.    The  chief  fibres  are : 

Cotton 

Flax 

Hemp 

Jute 

Linen 

Hemp,  Manila 


234        MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING 


Noils 

Ramie 

Shoddy 

Silk 

Organzine 

Floss  Silk 

Wool  and  Worsted 

Coir 

With  these  must  be  included  Silk, 
Aetificial  ;  and  Cotton,  Artificial, 
whose  use  is  increasing  with  improved 
processes.  See  also  Silk,  Vegetable  ; 
and  Silkworm. 

It  is  next  advisable  to  consider  the 
processes  by  which  the  fibres  are  pre- 
pared for  spinning  and  weaving.  These 
processes  are  discussed  in  the  following 
articles : 

Cotton-Gin 

Heckle 

Carding 

Spinning 

Yarn 

Textile  manufacturing  comprises  in- 
dustries of  many  diverse  characters, 
which  employ  complicated  machinery. 
As  thev  have  a  certain  amount  of  simi- 
larity, and  bear  some  relation  to  each 
other,  the  processes  of  making  the  vari- 
ous fabrics  may  first  be  considered  to- 
gether. The  first  step  is  the  designing 
of  the  fabric,  in  which  the  weaves,  pat- 
terns, and  designs  are  made  on  the 
Loom.  This  naturally  involves  the  dis- 
cussion of  Weaving,  which  should  ex- 
plain the  fundamental  weaves  and  the 
methods  by  which  patterns  are  pro- 
duced. Therefore,  in  this  connection, 
the  following  articles  slioidd  be  con- 
sulted : 

Textile  Manufacturing 
Textile  Designing 
Weaving 
Loom 


Heddle 

Bobbin 

Crocheting  and  knitting  differ  essen- 
tially from  weaving  and,  whether  per- 
formed by  hand  or  machine,  are  the 
means  of  producing  garments  and  other 
useful  articles.  The  following  titles  in- 
dicate the  articles  to  be  consulted  on 
these  subjects : 

Crochet 

Knitting 

Hosiery 

Either  the  yarn  or  the  finished  fabric 
may  be  dyed,  or  the  latter  may  be 
printed,  in  order  to  impart  colored 
designs  to  it.  In  either  case,  com- 
plex and  interesting  processes  arc  in- 
volved, which  are  described  in  the  list 
below : 

Dyeing 

Coal-Tar  Colors 

Vegetable  Colors 

Indigo 

Turkey  Red 

Textile  Printing 

Beetling 

Calendering 

Bleaching 

Blcaching-Powder 

Embroidery 

The  finished  textile  fabrics  are  al- 
most infinite  in  their  variety.  It  is  pos- 
sible to  select  the  more  important  and 
tiie  representatives  of  the  leading 
classes  and  study  them  in  detail.  Such 
a  list  arranged  alphabetical!}'  is  as 
follows : 

Art  Square 
Bandana 
Barege 
Batiste 
-  Blanket 
Bobl)inet 


MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING        235 


Bolting-Cloth 

Bombazine 

Brocade 

Brocatel 

Brussels  Lace 

Buckram 

Bunting 

Cambric 

Camel's  Hair 

Camlet 

Canvas 

Carpet 

Cassimere 

Chenille 

Chintz 

Corduroy 

Crape 

Cretonne 

Crinoline 

Damask 

Diaper 

Dimity 

Dornick 

Drugget 

Duck 

Felt 

Flannel 

Floor-Cloth 

Fustian 

Galloon 

Gauze 

Gingham 

Grass  Cloth 

Gunny 

Haircloth 

Huckaback 

Kersey 

Lace 

Linen 

Matting 

Mercerized  Cotton 

Mohair 

Moire 

Moleskin 


Muslin 

Nankeen  Cloth 

Nets 

Oilcloth 

Pina  Cloth 

Plush 

Poplin 

Rugs 

Satin 

Silk 

Taffeta 

Tapestry 

Tarlatan 

Tweed 

Velvet 

Leather    and    Leather    Manufac- 
tures. 

The  various  processes  for  the  manu- 
facture of  Leather  are  described  under 
that  title,  and  the  finished  products, 
such  as  boots,  shoes,  saddlery,  etc.,  in 
which  independent  industries  partici- 
pate, are  appropriately  grouped  by 
themselves.  For  leather  and  leather 
goods,  the  following  list  is  recom- 
mended : 

Leather 
Bark 

Tanning   (under  Leather) 

Buckskin 

Glove 

Buff  Leather 

Cordovan 

Shagreen 

Chamois 

Leather  Cloth 

Saddlery 

Boot 

Shoes 

Blacking 

Carriages  and  Other  Vehicles. 
From  the   primitive   ox-cart   to   the 


236        MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING 


modern  automobile  is  a  long  step,  and  it 
includes  the  development  of  many  vehi- 
cles for  pleasure  and  more  direct  use- 
fulness. These  are  represented  in  the 
following  list: 

Cart 

Chariot 

Carriage 

Coach 

Driving 

Coupe 

Hansom  Cab 

Wagonette 

Buckboard 

Phaeton 

Ambulance 

Bicycle 

Automobile 

Porcelain  axd  Pottery. 

There  are  few  more  interesting  stud- 
ies than  that  of  porcelain  and  pottery, 
and,  if  the  processes  are  traced  from 
the  production  of  the  clay  until  the  fin- 
ished piece  emerges  from  the  kiln  after 
the  final  firing,  the  reader  will  be  well 
repaid.  For  this  purpose  the  following 
articles  are  recommended: 

Pottery 

Porcelain 

Clay_ 

Kaolin 

Biscuit 

Kiln 

Annealing 

Ceramic 

Enamel 

Bow  China 

Burmese  Ware 

Vase 

Cracklin 

Stoneware  (under  Delft) 

Delft  Ware 

Eggslicll   China 


Faience 
Jasper  Ware 
Majolica 
Terra  Cotta 

Glass. 

Few  materials  are  more  extensively 
emploj-ed  in  the  arts  than  glass,  and  in 
scientific  work  and  in  decoration  it  also 
holds  an  important  place.  For  the  es- 
sential features  of  its  manufacture,  the 
general  article  should  be  consulted, 
while  the  subordinate  topics,  as  listed 
below,  should  be  read  in  this  connec- 
tion: 

Glass 

Flint  Glass 

Crown  Glass 

Iridescent  Glass 

Water-Glass 

Wire  Glass  (under  Glass) 

Bottle 

Carboy 

Prince  Rupert's  Drops 

Bologna  Vial 

Lens 

Mirror 

Lorraine  Glass 

Stained  Glass 

Gems,  Imitation 

Horology. 

The  construction  of  A'arious  instru- 
ments for  keeping  time  is  a  science  of 
considerable  antiquity,  and  its  various 
departments  may  he  studied  with  profit. 
A  convenient  arrangement  of  titles  is 
given  below: 

Horology 

Clock 

Watch 

Clepsydra 

Dial 

Hour-Glass 


MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING 


237 


Balance 

Escapement 

Fusee 

Pendulum 

Isochronism 

Chronoscope 

Chronograph 

Time,  Standard 

Time  Signals 

Printing,   Typography,   Engraving, 
Paper,  etc. 

The  development  of  the  art  of  print- 
ing has  brought  about  many  connect- 
ed processes  and  industries.  These  are 
concerned  with  the  impression  on  paper 
of  letters  or  designs  in  one  form  or  an- 
other, or  the  provision  of  the  apparatus 
and  machinerj'  to  do  this,  as  well  as 
the  material  to  receive  the  impression. 
An  arrangement  of  such  subjects  is  as 
follows : 

Printing 

Case 

Type  Founding 

Typesetting  ]\Iachines 

Electrotyping  (under  Electro-Chem- 

istry,  Industrial) 
Bank-Notes,  Manufacture  of 
Engraving 
Photo-Engraving 
Three-Color  Process 
Lithography 
Ink 

India  Ink 
Graphotype 
Paper 
Parchment 

Parchment,  Vegetable 
Cardboard 
Bristol  Board 
Cartridge-Paper 
Calendering 
Bookbinding 


Envelope 

Pen 

Pencil 

Typewriters 
Copying  Machines 
Sealing-Wax 
Ruling  Machine 
Miscellaneous  Industries  and  Prod- 
ucts. 
Bead 
Bell 

Blacking 
Bristles 

Brush   and   Broom 
Button 
Candle 
Celluloid 
Coal-Tar 
Coke 
Comb 
Cooperage 
Cork 
Corset 
Cosmetics 
Doll 

Embossing 
Excelsior 
Fan 

Flowers,  Artificial 
Gems,  Imitation  and  Artificial 
Gilding 
Gimp 
Glove 
Glue 

Gold  Lace 
Grease 

Gutta-Percha 
Ivory 

Ivory,  Vegetable 
Japanning 
Jewelry 
Lac 

Lacquer-Work 
Lapidary  Work 


238 


MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING 


Laundry  INIachinery 

Linoleum 

Lumber  Industry 

Mangle 

]\Iatches 

Needle 

Ormolu 

Papier-lNIache 

Pen 

Pencil 

Perfumery 

Petrolatuii] 

Pin 

Poppy-seed  Oil 

Pyrotechny 

Rope 

Rubber 

Sawdust 

Sewing  jNIachine 

Silkworm  Gut 

Straw  ^Manufactures 

Tableware,   Silver-Plated 

Tobacco  Pipe 

Varnish 

Voting  ^Machine 

Metallurgy. 

Under  the  A'arious  metals,  will  be 
found  articles  dealing  not  only  with 
their  occurrence  and  general  proper- 
ties, but  also  with  their  mining  and 
metallurgy.  Such  articles  are  included 
in  the  following  list : 

Iron 

Copper 

Gold 

Silver 

Nickel 

Zinc 

Platinum 

Lead 

Tin 

Antimony 

Manganese 


Mercury 

Aluminium 

Cobalt 

Tungsten 

Looking,  however,  at  methods  of 
mining  and  metallurgy,  there  are  gen- 
eral articles  which  have  reference  to  the 
more  common  metals  and  the  methods 
of  producing  and  refining  them.  These 
articles  are  as  follows: 

Mining 

Assaying 

Metallurgy 

Crucible 

Ore  Dressing 

Refining  of  Metals 

Electro-Chemistry 

Although  considerable  material  on 
metal  working  is  given  under  the  metals 
themselves,  there  are  certain  processes 
which  can  be  described  in  special  arti- 
cles.    These  include  the  following: 

Founding 

Forge,   Forging 

Anvil 

Weldinff 

Tempering  Steel 

Annealing 

Dies  and  Die-Sinking 

Damaskeening 

Brazing 

Rolling  Mill 

Grinding  and  Crushing  Machinery 

Mint 

Draw-Plate 

Electro-Plating 

Metal-Working  IMachinery 

For  many  purposes,  alloys  are  more 
useful  than  simple  metals.  These  are 
discussed  under  their  own  heads,  as  well 
ns  in  a  collective  article,  while  other 
preparations  of  metal  as  Galvanizkd 
Iron     and     Steel     Wool     are     also 


MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING 


239 


treated.     A  list  of  such  articles  is  as     dered,  and  there  are  a  number  of  ar- 


follows : 

Alloy 

Brass 

Bronze 

Pinchbeck 

Solder 

Flux 

Galvanized  Iron 

Steel  Wool 

The   ornamental   working  of  metals 
into  small  objects  is  also  to  be  consid- 


ticles  which  treat  the  subject  from  the 
artistic  as  well  as  the  practical  side. 
These  titles  include: 

Jewelry 

Plate,  Sheffield 

Tableware,  Silver-Plated 

Gold-Beating 

Gold-Beater's  Skin 

Repousee 

Enamel 

Embossins 


B.   OInnstntrttan 


Building  and  Building  Materials. 

The  materials  used  in  building  em- 
brace natural  and  artificial  substances 
which  are  specially  wrought  for  the 
purpose.  Whether  we  start  with  the 
lumber  from  the  forest  or  the  stone  of 
the  quarry,  we  find  that  there  are  a 
number  of  processes  which  have  to  be 
gone  through  before  the  material  is 
finally  disposed  of  in  its  appointed 
place.  Considering  first  the  materials 
for  building,  together  with  their 
sources,  the  following  list  has  been  con- 
structed : 

Building-Stone 

Quarry,  Quarrying 

Stone  Cutting  and  Dressing 

Stone,  Artificial 

Clay 

Brick 

Mortar 

Kiln 

Cement 

Terra  Cotta 

Tile 

Gypsum 

Lumber  Industry 

Strength  of  Materials 


For  a  study  of  the  process  of 
Building,  the  article  under  that  title 
will  furnish  an  adequate  idea.  The 
separate  branches,  however,  require 
more  extensive  treatment,  as  the  fol- 
lowing topics  will  suggest : 

Building 

Foundation 

Masonry 

Fireproof  Construction 

Heating  and  Ventilation 

Plumbing 

Elevator 

Paper-Hangings 

Painting 

Gas,  Illuminating 

Electric  Lighting 

For  certain  forms  of  building,  such 
as  Apartment  Houses  and  Hotels, 
somewhat  different  equipment  is  re- 
quired, and  these  are  discussed  under 
their  own  heads.  For  building  opera- 
tions in  general,  there  are  a  number  of 
minor  topics  that  require  a  separate 
treatment.  These  may  be  included  in 
the  following  list: 

Centring 


240 


MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING 


Chimney 

Door 

Window 

Framing 

Column 

Girder 

Beam 

Brace 


Roof 

Gutter 

Lightning,  Protection  from 

Lock 

Alarm 

Fire-E  scape 

Calcimine 

Heating  and  Ventilation 


C.    iEttgtn^^rtng 


The  constantly  broadening  field  of 
engineering  endeavor  has  resulted  in 
dividing  the  work,  so  that  to-day  an 
engineer  adopts  but  a  comparatively 
small  field  for  his  own  activity.  Under 
Engineer  and  Engineering,  will  be 
found  a  description  of  the  modern 
divisions  of  engineering  work  and  the 
qualifications  of  the  men  that  follow 
each  branch.  In  civil  engineering, 
first  may  be  mentioned  the  surveyor. 

Surveying. 

Surveying  involves  the  measurement 
of  distances  and  areas  and  the  delinea- 
tion of  the  territory  examined.  It  is 
carried  on  in  different  ways,  depending 
on  the  extent  and  character  of  the  coun- 
try under  survey.  The  following 
shows  the  general  division  of  topics : 

Surveying 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey 

Geological  Survey 

Geodesy 

Triangulation 

Hydrography 

Dredge 

Sound,  Sounding 

Photographic  Surveying 

Altimctry 

Hypsometry 

Leveling 


Offset 

Map 

Engineering  Instruments 

Theodolite 

Plane-Table 

Stadia 

Telemeter 

Yernier 

Sextant 

Compass,  Solar 

Planimeter 

Range-Findcr 

Aneroid 

Heliograph 

Odometer 

Railways. 

After  a  general  review  of  the  subject 
of  Railways,  particular  parts  require 
somewhat  fuller  treatment,  involving, 
as  they  do,  engineering  and  other  fea- 
tures of  a  unique  character.  For  this 
purpose,  the  following  list  is  supplied: 

Railways 

Street  Railway 

Electric  Railways 

Ship  Railway 

Locomotive 

Com  pressed- Air  Locomotive 

Tunnel 

Bridge 

Cantilever 


MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING        241 


Viaduct 

Culvert 

Gauge 

Frog,  Railway 

Fish  Plate 

Block-Signal  System 

Air  Brake 

Buffer,  Buffing  Apparatus 

Bumping  Posts 

Snow-Plow 

River  and  Harbor  Improvements. 

Various  important  works  to  aid 
maritime  commerce  consist  in  the  erec- 
tion of  numerous  harbor  and  river  im- 
provements. These  are  of  a  permanent 
character  and  require  special  engineer- 
inff.  Such  works  are  described  in  the 
list  below: 

Lighthouse 

Buoy 

Jetty 

Breakwater 

Embankments 

Dike 

Harbor 

Levee 

Dock 

Pile 

Excavating  Machinery 

Blasting 

Caisson 

Masonry 

Retaining  Walls 

Quay 

Canals. 

When  canals  are  carried  across  an 
isthmus,  as  the  Suez  or  the  Panama, 
they  may  take  on  many  of  the  essential 
characteristics  of  harbor  improve- 
ments ;  yet  such  works  show  consider- 
able variation,  and,  when  ordinary  in- 
land canals  or  those  in  connection  with 
an  irrigation  system  are  considered,  the 


methods  of  construction  are  quite  dif- 
ferent. Tlie  following  list  suggests  a 
line  of  topics  that  could  with  profit  be 
consulted : 

Canal 

Panama  Canal 

Nicaragua  Canal 

Suez  Canal 

Trans-Isthmian  Canal 

Ship  Railway 

Waterworks  and  Hydraulic  Engin- 
eering. 

The  use  of  water  practically  involves 
a  separate  department  of  engineering, 
but  one  in  contact  at  many  points  with 
civil,  sanitary,  mechanical,  and  electri- 
cal engineering.  It  is  necessary  first 
to  consider  Water  Supply,  or  the 
sources  of  water,  then  its  storage,  trans- 
mission, purification,  distribution,  and  ' 
final  consumption,  and  also  various  de- 
vices that  are  employed  in  these  differ- 
ent stages.  The  material  on  this 
subject  in  the  New  International  En- 
cyclopadia  is  represented  in  the  follow- 
ing list: 

Water  Supply 

Hydrography 

Well-Sinking 

Artesian  Wells 

Dams  and  Reservoirs 

Hydrostatics 

Hydrodynamics 

Current-]Meter 

Weir 

Irrigation 

Pipe 

Water  Purification 

Water-Works 

Pumps  and  Pumping  Machinery 

Valve 

Water  Power 

Filter  and  Filtration 


242 


MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING 


Accumulators 
Hydraulic  Ram 
Water  Wheel 
Turbine 
Hydraulic  Press 
Archimedes'   Screw 
Danaide 

Hydraulic  Pressure  Engine 
Water  jNIeters 

Hydraulic     Elevator    (under     Ele- 
vator) 

Sanitary  Science. 

Under  ihis  somewhat  comprehensive 
title,  may  be  included  such  schemes  as 
tend  to  improve  and  safeguard  the 
health  of  mankind.    See : 

Hygiene 

Health,  Boards  of 

Sanitary  Commission 

Quarantine 

Water  Supply 

Water  Purification 

Plumbing 

Sewage  Disposal 

Sewerage 

Drainage 

Catch-Drains 

Heating  and  Ventilation 

Bath-Houses,  Municipal 

Slaughter  Houses 

Burial 

Cemetery 

Cremation  of  the  Dead 

Health  Association,  American  Public 

Municipal  Engineering. 

The  various  applications  of  engi- 
neering knowledge  to  a  large  city  result 
in  the  solving  of  many  problems,  such 
as  water  supply,  transportation,  the 
provision  of  Parks  and  Playgrounds 
for  the  masses,  etc.  These  subjects, 
grouped  from  this  point  of  view,  will 
be  found  in  tlic  following  list: 


Road 

Street 

Boulevard 

Road  and  Street  Machinery 

Asphalt 

Pavement 

Subways 

Water-Works 

Parks  and  Playgrounds 

Landscape  Gardening 

Recreation  Piers 

Bath-Houses,  IMunicipal 

Garbage  and  Refuse  Disposal 

See  also  preceding  section  on  Sani- 
tary Science. 

Fire  Protection. 

The  surest  fire  protection  is  Fire- 
proof CoxsTBUCTioN  for  buildings. 
Safes  and  Safe  Deposit  Vaults  for 
valuables,  and  the  use  of  Incom- 
bustible Fabrics.  When  these  safe- 
guards are  unavailing,  however, 
recourse  must  be  had  to  the  various 
apparatus  for  fighting  fire,  such  as  the 
Fire-Engine,  Fire-Extinguisher,  etc. 
See: 

Fireproof  Construction 

Safes  and  Safe  Deposit  Vaults 

Fi  reproofing 

Incombustible  Fabrics 

Fire-Alarm 

Fire  Protection,  Municipal 

Fire-Engine 

Fire-Extinguisher 

Mechanical  Engineering. 

For  raising  and  transporting  mate- 
rials, and  for  carrying  on  otiier  impor- 
tant operations,  many  interesting  me- 
chanical devices  arc  constructed.  The 
Cahlevvay,  Telpherage,  Derrick, 
and  Traveling  Sidewalk  arc  typical 
of  the  former  class,  while  Grinding  and 


MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING 


243 


Crushing  Machinery  and  Air  Com- 
pressor may  be  cited  as  divisions  of 
the  many  branches  of  meclianical  en- 
gineering. A  list  of  such  subjects  as 
are  not  already  cited  under  other  heads 
includes : 

Derrick 

Crane 

Cableway 

Telpherage 

Ropeway 

Traveling  Sidewalk 

Elevator 

Air  Compressor 

Blowing-Machines 

Pneumatic  Dispatch 

Power,  Transmission  of 

Dynamometer 

Brake 

Air  Brake 

Lubricants 

Wood-Working  Machinery 

Mechanical  Devices. 

In  the  construction  of  machinery, 
there  are  cei'tain  elementary  parts  that 
enter  into  its  design.  These  serve  such 
purposes  as  changing  the  direction  of  a 
motion,  increasing  or  reducing  speed, 
or  permitting  its  control  in  any  desired 
way.     See : 

Mechanical  Powers 

Axle 

Shafting 

Wheel  and  Axle 

Lever 

Pulley 

Crank 

Cam 

Eccentric 

Winch 

Windlass 

Inclined  Plane 

Wedcre 


Toggle  Joint 

Screw 

Endless  Screw 

Belt 

Gear-Wheel 

Gearing 

Couple 

Prime  Movers. 

For  the  generation  of  power,  there 
are  a  number  of  sources  to  be  consid- 
ered. Heat,  Steam,  Electricity, 
Water  Power,  Wind,  etc.,  are  all 
treated  in  their  proper  places,  but  under 
this  head  may  conveniently  be  included 
articles  describing  the  means  for  trans- 
forming energy  into  mechanical  power 
available  for  a  thousand  and  one  dif- 
ferent purposes.     See: 

Caloric   Engine 

Compresscd-Air  Engine 

Compressed-Air  Locomotive 

Gas-Engines 

Fireless  Engine 

Steam  Engine 

Steam  Turbine 

Water  Wheel 

Windmill 

Hydraulic  Ram 

Hydraulic  Press 

Hydraulic  Pressure  Engine 

Dynamo-Electric  ]Machinery 

Mechanical  Powers 

Steam  and  Steam  Engine. 

Commencing  with  a  consideration  of 
the  properties  of  steam,  any  discussion 
soon  reaches  the  Steam  Engine  and 
its  various  parts  and  its  applications. 
Such  will  be  found  in  the  classification 
given   below : 

Steam 

JEolipile 

Steam  Engine 

Locomotive 


244        MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING 


Steam  Navigation 

Steam  Turbine 

Pumps  and  Pumping  Machinery 

Eccentric 

Crank 

Fly-Wlieel 

Governor 

Valve 

Injector 

Indicator 

Safety  Valve 

Condenser 

Horse-Power 

Electrical  Engineering. 

In  Electrical  Engineering,  we  may 
include  the  generation  and  distribution 
of  electric  current,  also  its  use  for  light 
and  power,  and  the  methods  by  whicli 
it  is  transmitted  to  considerable  dis- 
tance. The  subject  is  treated  in  the 
following  articles : 

Dynamo-Electric  Machinery 

Armature 

Cable,  Electric 

Transformer 

Transmission  of  Power 

Electric  Lighting 

Electric  Heater 

Electric  Railways 

Electro-Chemistry 

Storage  Battery 

Electrolysis 

Welding 

Liglitning-Arresters 

Electric  Fuze  (under  Fuze) 

For  a  discussion  of  the  plienomena 
of  the  electric  current,  see  the  compre- 
hensive section  on  Electricity  in  the 
chapter  on  Physics. 

Tools. 

Many  and  varied  tools  have  been  and 


are  used  by  the  mechanic,  which  are  dis- 
cussed in  the  articles  dealing  with  the 
various  industries.  Certain  groups  and 
individual  tools,  however,  demand  con- 
sideration. Thus,  Metal  and  Wood- 
Working  Machinery  include  many 
important  tools,  the  chief  types 
of  which  it  is  desirable  to  under- 
stand. Pneumatic  Tools  have 
resulted  in  considerable  saving  of 
labor  and  are  of  increasing  im- 
portance. INIany  tools,  such  as  the  file, 
hammer,  and  axe,  still  survive  and  are 
not  yet  replaced  by  macliinerj^.  The 
list  in  alphabetical  order  is  as  fol- 
lows: 

Axe 

Boring  Machinery 

Calipers 

Cutlery 

Drill 

File 

Hammer 

Jack 

Marling  Spike 

Mandril 

Metal-Working  Machinery 

Micrometer 

Plane 

Pneumatic  Tools 

Sand-Blast 

Sandpaper 

Saw 

Sawmill 

Screw 

Wood-Working  Macliinery 

TELKGUArH  and  TELEPHONE. 

The  transmission  of  intelligence  is 
constantly  being  acconijilishcd  more 
effectively  and  by  a  greater  variety  of 
methods,  specialization  iiaving  its  play 
here  as  in  other  branches  of  apj)b"cd 
eicctricitv.      The     following     articles 


MANUFACTURES    AND    ENGINEERING        245 


may  be  recommended  as  supplying  a 
complete  idea  of  the  history  and  devel- 
opment of  these  important  processes : 

Telegraph 

Signaling  and  Telegraphing,  Mili- 
tary 


Lightning- Arresters 
Telautograph 
Telegraphy,  Submarine 
Atlantic  Telegraph 
Wireless  Telegraphy 
Telephone 


24.    iitlttarg  mxh  Natial  Btinut 


A  S  the  purpose  of  an  amiy  or  any  military  organization  is  to  carry  on, 

/^k         or  at  least  be  prepared  to  carry  on,  war,  either  of  defense  or  of 

/    ^k        offense,  as  effectively  as  possible,  a  study  of  the  topic  War,  to 

Y       ^^^  ascertain  under  what  circumstances  recourse  is  had  to  the  court  of 

arms  and  under  what  conditions  the  laws  and  usages  of  nations 

demand  that  war  shall  be  waged,  makes  a  fitting  beginning  for  reading  in  this 

field.     Then,  coming  to  the  actual  operations  of  war,  we  find  that  thej'  must  be 

planned  according  to  the  principles   of  Strategy   and  executed  along  lines 

worked  out  in  systems  of  Tactics.     Accordingly,  then,  a  suitable  grouping  of 

allied  subjects  is  as  follows: 

A.   KnxmB 


War 

Strategy 

Tactics,  Military 

Tactics,  Naval 

Attack 

Assault 

Fire 

Battle 

Engagement 

Skirmish 

Invasion 

Blockade 

Fortifications,  Attack  and  Defense  of 

Siege 

Sap 

Bombardment 

Coast  Defense 

Manoeuvres 

Evolutions,  Military 

Demonstration 

Marching 

Manual  of  Arms 

A  Cheval  Position 

Ambuscade 

Ambush 

Debouching 

Echelon 

Enfilade 

Feint 


Point  d'Appui 

Retreat 

Base  of  Operations 

Advance  Guard 

Cavalry  Screen 

Outposts 

Picket 

Patrol 

Guard 

IVIain  Guard 

Rear  Guard 

Flank 

Reconnaissance 

Prisoner 

Contraband  of  War 

Organization. 

To  carry  out,  however,  any  scheme  of 
strategy  and  tactics  involves  an  army 
whose  effectiveness  depends  upon  its  or- 
ganization. In  the  organization  of  an 
army,  the  Infantry,  Cavalry,  and 
Artillery,  or  Line,  must  be  consid- 
ered. These  are  its  prime  essentials, 
together  with  its  Engineers,  Medical 
Department,  Commissariat,  Depart- 
ment of  the  Qfartermaster,  Signal 
Coups,  Bureau  of  Military  Justice,  or 
Judge  Advocate's  Department,  its  Pay 
Corps,  General  Staff,  and  the  varl- 


246 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


247 


ous  other  bureaus  and  departments 
upon  the  efficiency  of  which  tlie  suc- 
cessful organization  and  operation  of 
a  military  body  depend. 

Looking  at  military  organization 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  units  of 
which  an  army  is  made  up,  we  may  start 
with  the  Corps,  and  gradually  proceed 
from  one  command  to  an  inferior  one, 
learning  the  function  of  each  and  its 
relation  to  the  common  whole.  Rank 
AND  Command  is  the  keystone  of  mili- 
tary organization.  Over  each  body  of 
men  there  must  be  an  appropriate 
officer,  and  to  learn  his  duties  it  is  but 
necessary  to  consult  the  article  on  this 
subject.  In  addition  to  officers,  there 
may  be  certain  subordinate  individuals 
who  have  peculiar  or  individual  func- 
tions to  perform ;  these  too  are  best 
described  under  their  own  heads.  The 
accompanying  lists  suggest  the  re- 
lation of  many  of  these  topics. 
Dealing  first  with  the  division  which 
may  be  headed  Armies  and  Army  Or- 
ganization, we  find  large  and  ade- 
quate treatment,  the  historical  side  here 
as  well  as  elsewhere  in  the  Encyclopaedia 
being  considered.  The  first  group 
deals  with  the  divisions  of  military  or- 
ganization, the  second,  entitled  Rank 
and  Command,  with  the  individuals  of 
all  ranks  that  form  an  army.     See : 

(a)   Antiies  and  Army  Organization: 

Army  Organization 

Armies 

Corps 

Division     • 

Brigade 

Regiment 

Battalion 

Squadron 

Company 


Battery 

Platoon 

Detachment 

Artillery 

Artillery  Corps 

Artillery  Train 

Cavalry 

Infantry 

Mounted  Infantry 

Engineer  Corps 

Medical      Department,      United 

States  Army 
Medical      Department,      United 

States  Navy 
Ambulance 
Hospital  Corps 
Signal  Corps 
General  Staff 
Staff 

Military  Police 
Band,  iMilitary 
Pioneer 
Sharpshooter 
Color-Guard 
Reserve 
Cadre 
Contingent 
Column 
Militia 
Landwehr 

War,  Department  of 
Horse  Guards 
Life  Guards 
United     States     Army      (under 

United  States) 

(b)  Rank  and  Command: 

Field-Marshal 

General 

Lieutenant-General 

Major-General 

Brigadier-General 

Colonel 

Lieutenant-Colonel 


248 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


Major 

Captain 

Lieutenant 

Cadet,  ^Military 

Cadet,  Naval 

Adj  utant-General 

Adjutant 

Aide-de-Camp 

Commissary 

Quartermaster 

Paymaster 

Surgeon,  Military 

Inspector-General 

Chaplain 

Contract  Surgeon 

Commander-in-Chief 

Commandant 

Field  Officer 

Ensign 

Cornet 

Non-Commissioncd  Officer 

Color-Sergeant 

Drum  Major 

Sergeant 

Corporal 

Gunner 

Artificer 

Drummer 

Orderly 

Private 

Bombardier 

Sentinel 

Military  Engineering. 

To  the  military  engineer,  is  assigned 
many  problems  connected  with  the  ex- 
istence and  operation  of  an  army.  He 
has  to  provide  for  its  protection  in  both 
peace  and  war,  which  involves  the 
construction  of  suitable  barracks, 
camps,  and  fortifications,  both  tempo- 
rary and  permanent,  and  is  besides  re- 
quired to  study  and  delineate  the  coun- 
try in  which  tiie  troops  live  or  operate. 


Naturally,  the  chief  division  to  be  made 
in  the  topics  relating  to  this  subject 
is  Fortification,  involving  the  con- 
struction of  more  or  less  permanent 
works,  and  Field  Engineering,  deal- 
ing with  those  of  a  more  temporary 
character.      See : 

Engineering,  Military 

Fortification 

Battery 

Bastion 

Berm 

Blockhouse 

Caponiere 

Casemate 

Coast   Defense 

Embrasure 

Epaulement 

Traverse 

Stockade 

Enceinte 

Frontier,  Military 

Trench,  Military 

Escarp 

Gallery 

Magazine 

Martcllo  Tower 

Orillon 

Abatis 

Bill-Hook 

Blindage 

Barricade 

Cheveaux-de-Frise 

Fascines 

Gabion 

Approaches 

Parallels 

Siege  and  Siege  Works 

Demolition 

Breach 

Camp 

Encampment 

Bridges  and  Docks,  Military 

Mines  and  Mining,  Military 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


249 


Redoubt 
Retrenchment 
Revetment 
Redan 

Forts  of  the  United  States. 

With  a  description  of  the  principles 
of  Fortification  and  MiHtary  Encamp- 
ments, or  posts,  may  properly  be  in- 
cluded a  description  of  such  military 
posts  of  the  United  States  as  are  of 
importance  for  one  reason  or  another. 
These  are  included  in  the  following  list, 
and  the  articles  give  information  as  to 
their  location,  garrison,  general  char- 
acteristics, etc. 

Fort  Adams 

Fort  Bliss 

Fort  Canby 

Fort  Caswell 

Fort  Clark 

Fort  Columbus 

Fort  D.  A.  Russell 

Fort  Douglas 

Fort  Du  Pont 

Fort  Ethan  Allen 

Fort  Getty 

Fort  Grant 

Fort  Greble 

J^ort  Hamilton 

Fort  Hancock 

Fort  Howard 

Fort  Keough 

Fort  Leavenworth 

Fort  Logan 

Fort  McHenry 

Fort  McPherson 

Fort  Meade 

Fort  Monroe 

Fort  iMorgan 

Fort  Myer 

Fort  Porter 

Fort  Preble 

Fort  Riley 


Fort  Robinson 
Fort  Sam  Houston 
Fort  Schuyler 
Fort  Sheridan 
Fort  Snelling 
Fort  Stevens 
Fort  Strong 
Fort  Terry 
Fort  Thomas 
Fort  Totten 
Fort  Trumbull 
Fort  Wadsworth 
Fort  Walla  Walla 
Fort  Warren 
Fort  Washington 
Fort  Wayne 
Fort  Yellowstone 
Columbus  Barracks 
Jefferson  Barracks 
Madison  Barracks 
Plattsburg  Barracks 
Presidio  (San  Francisco) 
San   Diego  Barracks 
Vancouver  BaiTacks 
Washington  Barracks 

Oednance  and  Gunnery. 

To  carry  on  warfare,  many  weapons 
and  resources  have  been  placed  at  the 
disposal  of  the  soldier.  Such  titles  as 
Artillery,  Ordnance,  Explosives, 
Gunpowder,  Projectiles,  Small 
Arms,  naturally  suggest  themselves  as 
principal  topics.  With  them  may  be 
grouped  the  underlying  science  as  em- 
bodied in  Ballistics  and  Gunnery,  to- 
gether with  the  other  topics  contained 
in  the  following  list : 

(a)  Artillery: 

Coast  Artillery 
Field  Artillery 
Horse  Artillery 
Mountain  Artillery 


250 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


Siege  Gun 

Guns,  Naval 

Rapid-fire  Guns 

Machine  Gun 

Mitrailleuse 

Gardner  Gun 

Mortar 

Howitzer 

Air  Gun 

Pneumatic  Gun 

Submarine  Gun 

Ordnance 

Ordnance  Establishments 

Cannon 

Jacket 

Bore 

Calibre 

Artillery  Carriages 

Gun-Carriage 

Limber 

Caisson 

Small  Arms 

Carbine 

Chassepot 

Arquebus 

Bayonet 

Pistol 

Revolver 

Target  and  Target  Practice 

Sword 

(b)  Projectiles: 

Ammunition 

Grapc-Sliot 

Case-Shot 

Canister 

Carcass 

Grenade 

Bomb 

Shrapnel 

Rocket 

Cartridge 

Torpedo 


(c)  Explosives: 
Gunpowder 
Smokeless  Powder 
Dynamite 
Nitroglycerin 
Atlas  Powder 
Cordite 
Lyddite 
Maximite 
Picric  Acid 
Dualine 
Fulminates 

Fulminate  of  ]Mcrcury 
Fulminate  of  Silver 
Pyrotechny 
Primer 
Fuze 

Greek  Fire 
Charge 
Matches 

{d)  Gunnery: 

Ballistics 

Range 

Range-Finder 

Aim 

Charge 

Plongee 

Ricochet 

Target  and  Target  Practice 

Target  Practice,  Naval 

Proving  Ground 

Loading-Tray 

(e)  Historic  Cannon: 
Coehoorn 
Columbiad 
Demi-Cannon 
Demi-Culvcrin 
Falcon 
Jingal 
Mitrailleuse 

Uniform  and  Euuitment. 

Closely  connected  with  the  soldier's 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


251 


and  sailor's  weapons  are  his  Uniform 
and  Equipment,  the  various  insignia 
often  being  matters  of  considerable  in- 
terest and  curiosity  to  the  layman. 
[With  these  subjects,  we  may  include 
allied  topics  as  follows : 

Military  Insignia 

Uniforms,  Military  and  Naval 

Aiguilette 

Bandolier 

Busby 

Canteen 

Cartouch 

Chevrons 

Epaulet 

Facings 

Good  Conduct  Badges 

Haversack 

Helmet 

Kepi 

Khaki 

Kit 

Knapsack 

Spur 

Sword 

Military  Cekemonies. 

As  a  witness  of  various  military  cere- 
monies or  other  formalities,  the  layman 
comes  in  contact  with  certain  other  as- 
pects of  army  and  navy  life.  The 
more  important  of  these  will  be  treated 
under  their  respective  heads.  See  the 
following : 

Salutes 

Feu-de-Joie 

Dress  Ship 

Escort 

Review 

Inspection 

Parade 

Muster 

Flags. 

Flags  of  one  kind  or  another,  by  rea- 


son of  tlieir  histories  and  tradition  and 
their  special  uses  at  the  present  time, 
play  an  important  part  in  military  and 
naval  affairs.  Besides  being  the  em- 
blem of  the  nation,  they  may  also  per- 
tain to  various  organizations  or 
individuals,  as  the  colors  of  a  regiment 
or  the  flag  of  an  admiral.  These  will 
be  understood  on  reference  to  the  fol- 
lowing articles,  many  of  which  are 
illustrated  by  colored  plates: 

Flag 

Ensign 

Colors 

Guidon 

Standard 

Pennant 

Jack 

Union  Jack 

Flag  of  Truce 

Signaling  and  Telegraphing 

Historic  and  Special  IMilitary  Or- 
ganizations. 

Military  organizations  in  the  past, 
as  well  as  in  the  present,  have  been 
formed  either  for  special  purposes  or 
under  special  auspices,  or  as  independ- 
ent commands.  Some  of  the  more  fam- 
ous classes  of  soldiers  and  historic 
military  organizations  are  those  in- 
cluded in  the  following  list! 

Artillery  Compan}',  Ancient  and 
Honorable 

Artillery  Company,  Honorable 

Bashi-Bazouks 

Beefeater 

Bersaglieri 

Black  Watch 

Cameronians 

Carbineers 

Chasseurs 

Cohort 

Coldstream  Guards 


252 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


Colonial  Corps 

Cossacks 

Cuirassier 

Dragoons  (under  Cavalry) 

Equestrian  Order 

Fencible 

Foot  Guards 

Francs-Tireurs 

Fusiliers 

Green  Mountain  Boys 

Grenadier 

Grenadier  Guards 

Guard 

Guerrillas 

Guide 

Gurkhas 

Highlanders 

Honved 

Horse  Guards 

Household  Troops 

Hussars 

Janizaries 

Lancer 

Landsturm 

Landwehr 

Legion 

Life  Guards 

Mamelukes 

Minute  Men 

Mobiles,  Corps  of 

National  Guard 

Phalanx 

Rangers,  Mounted 

Rifleman 

Rough  Riders  Association 

Scots  Greys 

Sepoy 

Sikhs 

Spahis 

Strcltsi 

Trainbands 

Voltigeurs 

Yeomanry 

Yeomen  of  the  Guard 


Zouaves 
Military  Law. 

For  the  government  of  the  army 
there  are  certain  statutes  and  regula- 
tions. International  law  in  many  of  its 
aspects  touches  on  the  acts  of  armies 
in  the  field.  Accordingly,  a  grouping 
of  certain  topics  allied,  tiiough  not  nec- 
essarily logically  connected,  may  be 
made  as  follows : 

Military  Law 

Acts  of  Hostility 

Allegiance 

Armistice 

Articles  of  War 

Belligerent 

Blockade 

Booty 

Bounty 

Capitulation 

Cartel 

Cashiering 

Casus  Belli 

Conscription 

Contraband  of  War 

Council  of  War 

Courts  INIilitary 

Declaration  of  War 

Desertion 

Discliarge 

Judge- Advocate 

Judge-Advocate-General 

King's  Regulations 

Martial  Law 

Military  Commissions 

Military  Government 

Military  Law 

Military  Police 

Military  Prison 

Neutrality 

Posse  Comitatus 

Prisoner 

Privateering 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


253 


Prize 

Prize  Courts 

Provost-Marshal 

Ransom 

Spy 

Truce 
War 

Military  and  Navai-  Education. 

The  professions  of  the  soldier  and 
sailor  require  from  beginning  to  end 
continual  training,  and  from  Acad- 
emy to  War  College  tiiere  are  many 
studies  to  be  pursued.  Grouping  those 
topics  referring  to  the  education  of 
the  soldier  and  sailor,  we  have  the  fol- 
lowing list: 

Army   Schools 

Artillery  Schools 

Cadet,  Military 

Cadet,  Naval 

Cavalry  and  Light  Artillery  School 

Military  Education 

Military  Academy,  U.  S. 

General  Service  and  Staff  College 

Staff  Colleges  and  Schools 

War  College 

Naval  Academy,  U.  S. 

Naval  Schools  of  Instruction 

Naval  Institute,  U.  S. 

Discipline 

Drill 

Drill  Regulations 

MiSCELLANEOrS. 

Tlie  food  for  the  soldier  and  his  ani- 
mals is  discussed  under  Rations  and 
Forage,  and  its  mode  of  preparation 


under  Field  Cooking.  The  princi- 
pal Bugle  and  Trumpet  Calls  that 
summon  him  to  his  duties  are  given 
with  the  music  notes,  and  tiic  Drum 
and  Fife,  whicii  supply  the  field  music, 
are  also  treated.  Methods  of  Re- 
cruitment in  various  countries,  and 
also  Retirement,  should  be  studied, 
while  the  Pay  and  Allowances  of  the 
soldier  must  be  considered  in  order  to 
understand  army  conditions  at  home 
and  abroad.  An  essential  of  modern 
military  operations  is  the  maintenance 
of  communication  between  every  part 
of  an  army  and  its  base,  or  capital. 
This  is  the  function  of  the  Signal 
Corps,  whose  operations  and  apparatus 
are  treated  under  Signaling  and 
Telegraphing,  Military.  In  the 
event  of  casualties,  the  Surgeon  and 
the  Medical  Department,  with 
its  Hospital  Corps,  are  called  into  re- 
quisition, protected  as  they  are  by  the 
terms  of  tlie  Geneva  Convention.  It 
is  advantageous  to  learn  the  present 
conditions  of  Surgery,  ]\Iilitary,  and 
the  peculiar  problems  that  the  military 
surgeon  has  to  face,  as  well  as  his 
methods  of  operation.  In  this  connec- 
tion, also,  should  be  mentioned  the  work 
of  the  Red  Cross,  and  the  part  it  plays 
in  alleviating  suffering  on  the  battle- 
field. Of  importance,  as  in  a  small  way 
reproducing  some  of  the  conditions  of 
warfare,  the  War  Game  is  worthy  of 
consideration,  as  on  its  board  may  be 
worked  out  many  interesting  problems 
in  strategy  and  tactics. 


No  clearer  distinction  can  be  drawn  for  military  purposes  and  those  for 
in  discussing  vessels  for  navigating  the  commerce.  Under  Navies  and  Ship, 
seas  than  to  consider  separately  those      Armored,    is    given   an   historical    de- 


254 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


scription  of  the  former,  while  under 
Navigation  and  Steam  Navigation 
the  development  of  the  latter  is  traced. 
As  regards  modern  Shipbuilding, 
many  of  the  features  are  the  same  for 
both  classes  of  vessels,  and  a  single 
article  suffices,  leaving  the  subjects  of 
Armor  Plate,  Turret,  and  the  like  to 
be  discussed  separately.  In  the  follow- 
ing lists,  have  been  grouped  in  classes 
by  themselves  ships  of  war,  merchant- 
men, or  pleasure  vessels,  and  small  boats 
of  many  and  varied  designs  and  uses: 

(o)    Warships: 
Warship 
Ship,  Armored 
Cruiser 
,  Gunboat 
Torpedo  Boat 
Torpedo  Boat,  Submarine 
Hospital  Ship 
Ram 

Guard-Ship 
Receiving  Ship 
Galley 
Galliot 
Trireme 
Fire-Ship 
Floating  Battery 
Frigate 
Monitor 
Mortar  Vessel 
Corvette 

{b)   Merchantmen: 
Ship 

Steam  Navigation 
Clipper 
Bark 
Brig 
Schooner 
Sloop 

General  Ship 
Composite  Ships 


Lighter 

Whaleback 

Yacht 

Lugger 

Junk 

Grab 

Dhow 

Corsair 

Ketch 

Pinnace 

Pirogue 

Pram 

Great  Eastern 

Launch,  Launching 

Derelict 

Wreck 

(c)  Boats: 

Lifeboat 

Life-Rafts 

Balsa 

Launch 

Whalcboat 

Long  Boat 

Jolly-Boat 

Punt 

Cutter 

Catboat 

Canoe 

Catamaran 

Banca 

Ice-Breaking  Steamer 

Barca 

Kayak 

Ferry 

Organization. 

Naval  organization  presents  many  of 
the  same  aspects  as  does  that  of  an 
army.  There  nmst  be  the  same  respon- 
sibilities, the  same  gradations  of  Rank 
AND  CoM^rAND,  Line  and  Staff,  Corps 
and  Departments,  and  a  specialization 
in  duties  on  the  part  of  both  officers 
and    men.      In    the    merchant    marine 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


255 


much  the  same  system  is  observed,  as 
safety  of  passengers  and  cargo  depends 
upon  disciphne  and  efficiency  from 
master  to  crew.  Therefore,  with  the  ab- 
sence of  the  combative  elements,  the  or- 
ganization is  similar  in  many  respects. 
This  can  be  studied  by  reference  to 
the  articles  listed  below.  In  the  first 
series,  are  given  titles  appropriate  to 
naval  organization  itself,  while  in  the 
second  are  the  various  individual  offi- 
cers and  men  whose  positions  and  duties 
must  be  considered.     See: 

(a)   Navies: 
Navies 

Tactics,  Naval 
Marine  Corps 
Engineer   Corps,   United   States 

Navy 
Medical      Department,      United 

States  Navy 
Equipment,  Bureau  of 
Hydrographic  Office 
Navy,  Department  of  the 
Revenue  Cutter  Service,  United 

States 
Life-Saving  Service 
Coast  Guard 
Naval  Reserve 
Crew 

Company,  Ship's 
Complement 
Watch 
Division 
Landing  Fore 
Billet 
Mess 

{b)   Officers: 

Admiral 

Commodore 

Captain 

Commander 

Lieutenant-Commander 


Lieutenant 

Ensign 

Midshipman 

Cadet,  Naval 

Clerk,  Naval 

Commanding  Officer 

Commandant 

Flag-Officer 

Executive  Officer,  United  States 
Navy 

Surgeon,  Military  and  Naval 

Paymaster 

Watch  Officer 

Naval  Constructors 

Provost-Marshal 

Pilot 

Coast  Pilot 

Warrant  Officer 

Gunner 

Master 

Master-at-Arms 

Mate 

Carpenter,  Navy 

Boatswain 

Petty  Officer 

Quartermaster 

Coxswain 

Naval  Apprentice  (under  Ap- 
prentice) 

Landsman 

Boys,  Ships' 

Shipbuilding  and  Naval  Architec- 
ture. 

The  design  and  construction  of  a 
vessel,  especially  one  of  modern  type, 
involves  the  application  of  much  study 
and  practical  engineering.  Under 
SnirBUiLDiXG  will  be  found  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  principal  problems  before 
the  naval  architect,  and  especially  those 
arising  from  the  substitution  of  iron 
and  steel  for  wood  as  materials  of 
construction,    and    the    use    of    steam 


256 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


as  a  motive  power  in  place  of  sails. 
The  construction  of  a  vessel  of  great 
cargo-carrying  capacity,  or,  in  the 
case  of  a  war  vessel,  one  of  the  maxi- 
mum offensive  power,  is  important 
as  influencing  the  final  success  of  the 
craft  when  launclied.  This  involves  the 
consideration  of  Tonnage,  Displace- 
ment, Stability,  Arjige  Plate,  Ar- 
mament, etc.  These  features  and  their 
relations  one  to  another  will  be  shown 
by  consulting  the  titles  in  the  following 
list: 

Ship 

Shipbuilding 

Navigation 

Steam  Navigation 

Steam  Engine 

Steam  Turbine 

Buoyancy 

Stability 

Metacentre 

Resistance 

Displacement 

Tonnage 

Measurement  of  Ships  for  Ton- 
nage 

Lloyds 

Al" 

The  various  parts  of  a  vessel  are  al- 
most infinite  in  number.  The  articles 
Shipbuilding,  Steam  Navigation, 
and  Ship  will  tell  of  these  various  parts 
and  describe  how  the  skill  of  naval 
ai'chitect  and  shipbuilder  unites  them 
into  one  congruous  whole.  Such  parts, 
however,  often  ])ossess  distinct  features 
and  ciiaracteristics  which  need  separate 
treatment,  and  these  are  included  in 
tlic  following  list: 

Beak 

Bilge 

Beam 

Bottom 


Bow 

Bridge 

Bulkhead 

Bulwark 

Cockpit 

Companion 

Deck 

Figureliead 

Gangway 

Hawse 

Helm 

Hold 

Keel 

Keelson 

Paddle-WHieel 

Poop 

Screw  Propeller 

To  gain  a  good  idea  of  the  rigging 
of  a  ship  and  the  names  of  masts,  sails, 
etc.,  the  best  plan  is  to  consult  the  plate 
accompanying  the  article  Ship,  where 
all  the  various  parts  of  the  rigging 
of  a  full-rigged  ship  are  indicated  and 
specified.  There  are  various  topics  con- 
nected with  sails  and  rigging  that  are 
described  and  their  functions  shown 
in  brief  articles.  Such  a  list  includes 
the  following : 

Belay 

Boom 

Bowsprit 

Brace 

Brail 

Clip  Hooks 

Crow's-Nest 

Gaff 

Halliards 

Jib 

Jury 

Lateen  Sail 

Lug-Sail 

Mast 

Rigging 

Sail 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


257 


Spanker 

Sprit 

Stay 

Connected  with  the  ship,  but  not  fall- 
ing in  any  of  the  above  classes,  are 
many  essentials  such  as  the  Anchor, 
the  Binnacle,  the  Davit,  etc.  These 
adjuncts  are  specially  designed  for 
specific  purposes,  which  the  reader  nat- 
urally desires  to  understand.  The  fol- 
lowing list  includes  some  of  the  more 
important  subjects  in  such  a  grouping: 

Anchor 

Ballast 

Batten 

Bells 

Binnacle 

Block 

Bridle 

Buoy 

Burton 

Cable 

Canvas 

Capstan 

Cat 

Cofferdam 

Controller 

Cordage 

Davit 

Fender 

Ground-Tackle 

Kedge 

Knotting  and  Splicing 

Lifeboat 

Life  Buoy 

Life-Prescrvers 

Life-Rafts 

Life-Saving  Guns  and  Rockets 

Life-Saving  Service 

Lights 

Marling  Spike 

Oakum 

Purchase 

Rope 


Tackle 
Wheel 
Winch 
Windlass 

Navigation. 

Navigation  involves  the  conducting 
of  a  vessel  from  one  port  to  another  by 
making  use  of  charts,  the  position  of 
various  heavenly  bodies  as  determined 
by  the  navigator,  and  such  other  data 
as  he  can  obtain  by  observation  and 
calculation.  In  general  this  is  con- 
tained in  the  article  Navigation,  but 
further  details  and  explanations  are 
given  of  incidental  topics.  The  follow- 
ing list  will  be  found  by  the  reader  suf- 
ficiently comprehensive : 

Navigation 

Latitude  and  Longitude 

Sailings 

Compass 

Reckoning 

Dead  Reckoning 

Day's  Work 

Departure 

Deviation 

Rhumb  Line 

Meridian 

IMap 

Loxodrome 

Chart 

Coast  Pilot 

Bowditch's  Practical  Navigator 

Almanac 

Ephemeris 

Pilot  Chart 

Protractor 

Sextant 

Quadrant 

Vernier 

Seamanship. 

Seamanship    may    be    distinguished 


258 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


from  navigation  as  dealing  with  the 
actual  practice,  rather  than  the  theory, 
involving  the  handling  of  vessels 
and  the  means  taken  to  insure  their 
safety.  Thus,  under  this  head,  is  dis- 
cussed such  important  subjects  as  the 
Rules  of  the  Road,  the  use  of  the 
Log,  Jacking,  jibing,  mooring,  and 
the  various  manoeuvres  and  operations 
carried  on  at  sea  and  in  port.  These 
hardly  fall  in  a  logical  order,  but  the 
more  important  are  contained  in  the 
following  list : 

Tacking  and  Wearing 

Jibe 

Boxhauling 

Lee 

Leeway 

Moor,  Mooring 

Log 

Log-Book 

Helm 

Steering 

Port 

Larboard 

Starboard 

Bearing 

Maritime  Law. 

Vessels  sailing  on  the  high  seas  are 
governed  by  rules  and  usages  which 
have  given  rise  to  a  body  of  laws 
known  as  admiralty  and  maritime  law. 
Furthermore,  such  vessels  are  required 
to  observe  the  statutes  of  the  countries 
whose  flags  they  fly,  and  such  formal- 
ities as  are  duly  prescribed.  Con- 
nected with  such  governmental  regu- 
lations, are  those  of  marine  under- 
writers and  insurance  principles,  form- 
ing a  large  department  of  maritime 
law.  Interests  at  sea  are  also  consid- 
ered by  intcniational  law,  and  prizes 
and  privateering  arc  subjects  which  it 


must  consider.  A  grouping  of  inter- 
esting topics  in  these  more  or  less  re- 
lated branches  is  as  follows : 

International  Law 

Admiralty  Law 

Maritime  Law 

Navigation  Laws 

Navigation,  Freedom  of 

Ship's  Papers 

Manifest 

Bill  of  Lading 

Clearance 

Bill  of  Health 

Charter-Party 

Cargo 

Freight 

Demurrage 

Admiralty,  The 

Bounty 

Collisions  of  Vessels 

Bottomry  Bond 

Respondentia 

Salvage 

Derelict 

Wharfage 

Jettison 

Barratry 

Quarantine 

JNIarine  Insurance 

Lloyds 

Al 

Measurement  of  Sliips  for  Tonnage 

Tonnage 

Load-Line  Marks  of  Vessels 

Privateering 

Prize 

Prize  Courts 

Desertion 

As  the  sailor  must  make  his  base  of 
operations  on  shore,  it  is  proper  to 
consider  such  subjects  as  Navy 
Yards,  Docks,  etc.,  where  he  may 
secure  suppHes  and  protection.       The 


MILITARY    AND    NAVAL    SCIENCE 


259 


following  list  indicates  certain  articles 
that  will  be  of  assistance  in  this 
respect : 

Navy  Yard 

Dockyards,  Royal 

Arsenal 


Reef 

Harbor 

Breakwater 

Dock 

Wharf 

Torpedo  Station 


Qllfapt^r  25*    iM^Jitrm^ 


THE  dissemination  of  some  medical  knowledge  among  the  laity  is  a 
matter  of  inestimable  social  importance.  Popular  ignorance  on 
the  subjects  of  hygiene,  the  prevention  of  disease,  and  the  care  of 
the  sick,  places  many  widespread  evils  sadly  beyond  the  power 
of  the  medical  profession.  The  average  man's  failure,  moreover,  to 
appreciate  clearly  the  soundness  of  the  principles  and  methods  of  medical  science 
invites  the  appearance  in  tlie  community  of  various  mystical,  or  mystifying, 
quacks,  claiming  to  know  therapeutic  methods  of  all  but  miraculous  efficiency,  and 
offering  to  sell  medicines  which,  like  the  philosopher's  stone  once  vainly  sought 
by  the  alchemists,  possess  unlimited  curative  powers.  Honest  and  valuable 
knowledge  to-day  has  no  secrets,  and,  notwithstanding,  or  rather  because  of,  really 
considerable  development,  is  professedly  aware  of  its  limitations.  Perhaps, 
therefore,  the  clearest  mark  of  the  impostor  or  incompetent  is  the  alleged  posses- 
sion of  secrets  or  of  methods  of  universal  applicability.  Nor  will  the  cunning 
theories,  widely  advertised  in  support  of  such  allegations,  appear  at  all  reasonable 
to  the  man  who  has  familiarized  himself  with  the  main  principles  and  facts  of 
scientific — that  is,  rational — medicine. 

The  lists  of  articles  presented  in  the  following  pages  map  out  a  complete 
course  of  systematic  reading  in  medicine.  A  true  understanding  of  tlie  purely 
medical  subjects,  even  in  their  elementary  aspects,  is  possible  only  after  the 
acquisition  of  some  knowledge  of  the  general  biological  sciences  and  of  chemistry. 
Thus,  human  anatomy  is  best  understood  if  studied  in  connection  with  compara- 
tive anatomy.  Physiology  is  more  or  less  obscure  if  studied  without  a  prelim- 
inary knowledge  of  the  general  principles  of  chemistry  and  biology,  and,  again, 
human  physiology  should  be  studied  in  connection  with  the  physiology  of  tlie 
lower  animals.  Even  general  botany  presents  a  number  of  points  of  the  highest 
interest  to  the  student  of  human  anatomy  and  physiology.  Should  the  assiduous 
reader  of  the  Encyclopaedia  desire  to  familiarize  himself  with  tlicse  and  cognate 
subjects,  the  present  volume  will  readily  afford  the  necessary  guidance.  We 
would  especially  call  attention  to  the  psychological  articles  on  the  special  senses 
and  faculties,  without  which  the  physiological  functions  of  the  brain  and  nervous 
system  cannot  be  thoroughly  understood.  Further,  a  large  number  of  chemico- 
physiological  articles  on  special  foods,  and  of  articles  on  subjects  of  veterinary 
medicine,  will  be  found  listed  in  the  chapter  Agriculture,  Horticulture,  and 
Forestry,  those  articles  having  been  prepared  for  the  Encyclopa'dia  by  the  food 
and  veterinary  experts  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

The  classification  of  the  medical  subjects  proper,  on  which  the  lists  below 
are  based,  and  the  order  of  sequence  of  the  subjects  in  the  lists  themselves,  are 
tliose  adopted  by  the  best  medical  authorities,  with  slight  modifications  to 
suit  the  distribution  of  subject-matter  in  the  Encyclopiedia.  The  only  consid- 
erable deviations  from  general  usage  are  in  the  case  of  anatomy  and  physiology, 
the  two  being  somewhat  closely  interwoven  in  the  Encyclopa'dia  and  therefore, 
here,  too,  arranged  as  one  joint  subject.     The  listed  articles  comprise  a  complete 

260 


MEDICINE  261 


treatment  of  essentials.  The  reader  desiring  more  detailed  information  on  par- 
ticular bones,  muscles,  nerves,  etc.,  will  be  guided  to  the  special  articles  on  such 
subjects  by  cross-references  in  the  articles  listed. 

The  only  lists  in  which  the  order  of  sequence  of  the  topics  is  not  according 
to  some  recognized  system  are  those  under  "  Symptoms  and  Morbid  Conditions  " 
(division.  Pathology  and  Therapeutics)  and  "Diseases  of  the  Skin"  (divi- 
sion. Diseases  of  the  Nose  and  Throat,  Ear,  Eye,  Skin,  and  the  Gcnito-Urinary 
System).  The  former  list  comprises  those  symptoms  and  morbid  conditions 
that  are  common  to  more  than  one  class  of  diseases  and  that  could  not,  there- 
fore, be  included  in  the  somewhat  rigidly  classified  lists  preceding.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  orders  of  sequence  of  skin  diseases  usually  adopted  in  special 
medical  works  are  practically  useless.  It  was,  therefore,  deemed  best  in  both 
cases  to  preserve  the  alphabetical  order — for  convenience  of  reference.  The  list 
of  "  Drugs  "  (division,  Materia  Medica)  includes  all  the  pharmacopceial  prep- 
arations in  frequent  use.  A  number  of  rarer  drugs  may  be  found  described  in 
the  articles  on  chemical  subjects. 

The  biographies  of  famous  medical  men  are  arranged  in  the  order  of  his- 
torical sequence  and,  together  with  the  articles  listed  under  "  History,"  form  a 
complete  presentation  of  the  history  of  medicine — a  truly  fascinating  subject. 
Interesting  historical  detail  will  also  be  found  in  the  articles  on  all  medical  topics 
of  any  importance.  The  inclusion  of  such  historical  articles  as  Bath,  Barber, 
Empiric,  Derivation,  Black  Death,  Plague,  Inoculation,  etc.,  would  have 
swelled  the  lists  unnecessarily. 


1.     Introductory  Articles.  Malpractice 

Medical  Education  Medicine 

Homoeopathy  H.  Anatomy   and   Physiology. 

Eclectic  School  of  Medicine  -,     ^          ,    ^    ,•  , 

_,     .   .          „  1.  General  Articles: 
Nurses,  T.  raining  ot 

Chnic  Anatomy 

Hospital  Physiology 

Dispensary  2.  Bones,  Muscles,  and  Ligaments : 

Ambulance  Bone 

Insane  Asylum  Cartilage 

Bedlam  Marrow 

Gheel  Periosteum 

Epileptic  Colony  Suture 

Vital  Statistics  Ossification 

Sanitary  Laws  Skeleton 

Health,  Boards  of  Skull 

Contagious   Diseases  Spinal  Column 

Hippocratic  Oath  Rib 

Medical   Code  Sternum 


262 


MEDICINE 


Muscle  and  Muscular  Tissue 

Tendon 

Ligament 

Flesh 

Muscular  Force 

Diaphragm 

Joint 

Shoulder-Joint 

Arm 

Hand 

Hip-Joint 

Thigh 

Knec-Joint 

Patella 

Leg 

Foot 

3.  Cavities: 

Skull 
Chest 
Abdomen 
Pelvis 

4.  Nervous  St/stem  and  Brain: 

Nervous   System   and   Brain 
Cerebro-Spinal  Fluid 
Inhibition 

5.  Circulatory  System: 

Circulation 

Heart 

Blood-Vcssels 

Artery 

Pulse 

Aorta 

Innominate  Artery 

Carotid  Artery 

Iliac  Arteries 

Blood 

Blushing 

6.  Respiratory  System: 

Respiration,    Organs    and    Pro- 
cess of 
Pharynx 
Larynx  > 

Voice 


Trachea 

Bronchus 

Asphyxia 

7.  Alimentary  System: 

AUmentary   System 
Digestion,     Organs     and     Pro- 
cesses of 
Food 
Nutrition 
Teeth 
Pharynx 
Salivary  Gland 
CEsophagus 
Stomach 
Pepsin 
Intestine 

Peristaltic  Motion 
Pancreas 
Pancreatin 
Liver 
Bile 

Bi'unner's  Glands 
Absorption 
Colon 
Cscum 

Vermiform  Appendix 
Rectum 
Anus 
Faces 

8.  Genito-Urinary  System: 
Puberty 
Menstruation 
Climacteric  Year 
Reproduction 

Ovary 

Fallopian  Tubes 

Uterus 

Vagina 

Bartholin's  Glands 

Breast 

Kidney 

Ureter 

Bladder 


MEDICINE                                         263 

Urethra 

,  12.  Embryology: 

Urine 

Embryology,  Human 

9.  Special  Senses: 

Epigenesis 

Nose 

Embryo 

Eye 

Foetus 

Ear 
T'on  CPU  p 

13.  Physiological  Subjects   not   in- 

Touch 

cluded  Above: 

Chemistry,  Physiological 

10.  Ductless  Glands  and 

Lymphatic 

Life,  Mean  Duration  of 

Structures: 

Rigor  Mortis 

Thyroid  Gland 

Longevity 

Thymus  Gland 

Metabolism 

Suprarenal  Capsules 

Animal  Heat 

Pituitary  Body 

Temperature  of  the  Body 

Spleen 

Sleep 

Tonsil 

Hypnoscope 

Lymphatic 

Sex 

Thoracic   Duct 

Sensation 

Lacteal 

Secretion 

Chyle 

Vivisection 

Lymph 

Vegetarianism 

11.  Tissues: 

III.  Hygiene      and      Prophylactic 

Histology 

Methods. 

Epithelium 

Hygiene 

Gland 

Sanitary  Laws 

Skin 

Sanitary  Science 

Hair 

Health 

Sweat 

Immunity 

Nail 

Quarantine 

Scalp 

Disinfectants 

Membrane 

Heating  and  Ventilation 

Mucous  IVIembrane 

Water  Supply 

Connective    Tissue 

Water  Purification 

Adipose  Tissue 

Sewage  Disposal 

Endothelium 

Food 

Serous  Membrane 

Diet 

Pericardium 

Infants,  Feeding  of 

Pleura 

Wine 

Mesentery 

Sterilized  Food 

Peritoneum 

Exercise 

Periosteum 

Physical  Training 

Muscle  and  Muscular 

Tissue 

Bath 

Nervous  System  and  Brain 

Vaccination 

264 


MEDICINE 


IV.  Pathology  and  Thekapeutics. 

1.  General  Articles: 
Pathology 
Therapeutics 
Disease 
Nosology 

Disease,  Germ  Theory  of 

Distribution  of  Diseases 

Congenital  Disease 

Degeneration 

Intennarriage 

Filth  Disease 

Endemic 

Epidemic 

Infection 

Infectious  Disease 

Insects,  Propagation  of  Disease 

by 
Bacteria 

Microscopy,  Clinical 
Toxin 
Virus 

Homoeopathy 

Eclectic  School  of  Medicine 
Christian  Science 
Osteopathy 

2.  Specific  Infectious  Diseases: 

Typhoid  Fever 

Typhus  Fever 

Relapsing  Fever 

Smallpox 

Chicken  Pox 

Scarlet  Fever 

Measles 

Mumps 

Whooping  Cough 

Influenza 

Dengue 

Meningitis 

Erysipelas 

Diphtheria 

Croup 

Septicaemia 


Pyaemia 

Cholera 

Yellow  Fever 

Black  Vomit 

Plague 

Dysentery 

Malaria  and  ]\Ialarial  Fever 

Ague 

Jungle  Fever 

Malignant  Pustule 

Anthrax 

Intermittent  Fever 

Remittent  Fever 

Hydrophobia 

Tetanus 

Trismus  Nascentium 

Syphilis 

Tuberculosis 

Scrofula 

Glanders 

Actinomycosis 

Febricula 

Malta  Fever 

3.  Constitutional  Diseases: 
Rheumatism 
Lumbago 

Gout 

Diabetes 

Rickets 

Scurvy 

Purpura 

Ha?mophilia 

Obesity 

4.  Diseases  of  the  Alimentary  Sys- 

tem: 
Mouth,  Diseases  of  the 
Aphthae 
Pharyngitis 
Quinsy 
Qilsopliagiis 

Stomach,  Diseases  of  the 
Gastritis 
Dyspepsia 


MEDICINE 


265 


Indigestion 

Enteritis 

Gastro-Enteritis 

Cholera  Infantum 

Mesentery 

Liver,  Diseases  of  the 

5.  Diseases  of  the  Respiratory  Sys- 

tem: 
Rhinitis 
Hay  Fever 
Laryngitis 
Bronchitis 
Asthma 
Tuberculosis 
Pneumonia 
Pleurisy 
Hydrothorax 

6.  Diseases  of  the  Circulatory  Sys- 

tem: 
Heart,  Diseases  of  the 
Pericarditis 
Endocarditis 
Myocarditis 
Palpitation 
Angina  Pectoris 
Atheroma 
Arterio-Sclerosis 

7.  Diseases  of  the  Blood  and  Duct- 

less Glands: 
Anaemia 
Chlorosis 
Leucocythaemia 
Goitre 
Cretinism 
Myxoedema 
Basedow's  Disease 
Acromegaly 
Addison's  Disease 

8.  Diseases  of  the  Kidneys : 

Kidney,  Diseases  of  the 
Bright's  Disease 
Uraemia 


Diseases  of  the  Nervous  System 

and  Brain: 
Neurology 
Nervous  Disease 
Nervousness 
Paralysis 
Neuritis 
Sciatica 

Facial  Paralysis 
Caisson  Disease 
Myelitis 

Locomotor  Ataxia 
Syringomyelia 
Brain,  Diseases  of  the 
Aphasia 
Apoplexy 
Hemiplegia 
Hydrocephalus 
Paralysis  Agitans 
Chorea 
Epilepsy 
Hystero-Epilepsy 
Migraine 
Neuralgia 
Facial  Neuralgia 
Neurosis 

Occupation  Neurosis 
Hysteria 
Sea-Sickness 
Neurasthenia 
Hypochondriasis 
Rest-Cure 
Acromegaly 
Stammering 
Nostalgia 
Fatuity 
Imbecility 
Idiocy 
Insanity 
Delirium 
Dipsomania 
Melancholia 
Mania 
Paranoia 


266 


MEDICINE 


Monomania 
Pyromania 
Kleptomania 
Homicidal  Mania 
Puerperal  Insanity 
Paresis 

Lucid  Interval 
Imitative  Insanity 

10.  Parasitic  Diseases: 
Parasitic  Diseases 
Worms 

Oxyuris 

Trichiniasis 

Sleeping-sickness 

Filaria 

Lumbricoid 

Tapeworm 

11.  Symptoms  and  Morbid  Condi- 

tions : 
Albuminuria 
Amblyopia 
AmenorrliCEa 
Anosmia 
Aphonia 
Arcus  Senilis 
Asthenopia 
Bedsores 

Breath,  Offensive 
Cachexia 
Catalepsy 
Catarrh 
Colic 
Coma 
Congestion 
Constipation 
Convulsion 
Coughing 
Cramp 
Crisis 
Cyanosis 
Degeneration 
Diarrhoea 
Dropsy 


Ecchymosis 

Embolism 

Epistaxis 

Fainting 

Fatty  Degeneration 

Fever 

Formication 

Haematuria 

Ha?mopt}'sis 

Headache 

Heat-Stroke 

Hectic  Fever 

Hemiopia 

Hiccough 

HypersEsthesia 

Hypertrophy 

Insomnia 

Jaundice 

Knee-jerk 

Leucorrhoea 

Meningitis 

Muscffi  Volitantes 

Nausea 

OEdema 

Osteomalacia 

Oxaluria 

Papule 

Pectoriloquy 

Petechia 

Pleurodynia 

Polydipsia 

Pulse 

Purpura 

Pyrosis 

Respiratory  Sounds 

Senility 

Sitophobia 

Skin  Disease 

Spasm 

Starvation 

Sweat 

Symptom 

Tenesmus 

Thirst 


MEDICINE 


267 


Tinnitus  Aurium 

Urine,  Incontinence  of 

Vertigo 

Vomiting 

Waxy,  or  Amyloid  Degeneration 
12.  Diagnostic     and      Therapeutic 
Methods  and  Instruments: 

Diagnosis 

Percussion 

Auscultation 

Stethoscope 

Dynamometer 

Axillary  Thermometer 

Temperature  of  the  Body 

X-Rays 

Microscopy,  Clinical 

Laryngoscope 

Ophthalmoscope 

Therapeutics 

Diet 

Exercise 

Movement  Cure 

Hydrotherapy 

Massage 

Rest-Cure 

Transfusion  of  Blood 

Venesection 
V.  Surgery,   Gynecology,   and   Ob- 
stetrics. 

1.  General  Articles: 

Surgery 

Surgery,  Military 
Obstetrics 

2.  General  Surgical  Pathology: 

Inflammation 

Suppuration 

Pus 

Abscess 

Boil 

Felon 

Carbuncle 

Ulcer 

Phagedena 


Sinus 

Fistula 

Necrosis 

Gangrene 

Caries 

Adhesion 

Cicatrization 

Bruise 

Wound 

Gunshot  Wound 

Dissection  Wounds 

Burns  and  Scalds 

Frostbite 

Tumor 

Cyst 

Hydatid 

Actinomycosis 

Adenitis 

Septicemia 

Pyaemia 

Shock 

3.  General  Surgical  Technique: 
Anaesthesia 

Antiseptic 
Acupressure 
Acupuncture 
Bleeding 
Drainage  Tubes 
Ligature 
Suture 
Tourniquet 
■  Puerperal  Fever 
Abortion 
Forceps 
Embryotomy 

Csesarean,    or   Cssarian,   Opera- 
tion 

4.  Pathology  of  Special  Structures: 

Artery 

Aneurism 

Phlebitis 

Varicose  Vein 

Thrombosis 

Embolism 


268 


MEDICINE 


Nerve-Stretching 

Fracture 

Callus 

Osteomyelitis 

Periostitis 

Splint 

Amputation 

Sprain 

Synovitis 

Arthritis 

Housemaid's  Knee 

Ankylosis 

Dislocation 

Resection 

Wen 

Keloid 

Chapped  Hands 

Bunion 

Corn 

Skin-Grafting 

5.  Orthopadic  Surgery: 

Deformities 

Wry-Neck 

Pott's  Disease 

Spine,  Curvature  of  the 

Hip-Joint 

Knock-Knee 

Leg 

Valgus 

Varus 

Clubfoot 

Tenotomy 

Artificial  Limbs 

6.  Regional     Surgery,      Including 

Gynecology : 
Encephalocele 
Concussion  of  the  Brain 
Trephine,  Trephining 
Rhinoplastic  Operation 
Harelip 
Ranula 
Dentistry 
Laryngotomy 
Tracheotomy 


Choking 

Mammary  Gland,  Diseases  of 
Rib,  Fracture  of  the 
Pleurisy 
Empyema 
Peritonitis 
Gastrostomy 
Umbilical  Hernia 
Hernia 
Truss 

Intussusception 
Laparotomy 
Vermiform  Appendix 
Perityphlitis 
Ovary 
Nephrotomy 
Nephrectomy 
Calculus,  or  Stone 
Lithotrity 
Lithotomy 
Castration 

Rectum,  Diseases  of  the 
Prolapsus  Ani 
Piles 

Spina  Bifida 
Uterus,  Diseases  of  the 
Prolapsus  Uteri 
7.  Obstetrics: 
Obstetrics 
Gestation 
Superfcetation  and   Superfecun- 

dation 
Placenta 
Caul 

Umbilical  Cord 
Meconium 
Weaning 
Agalactia 

Electricity,  Medical  Uses  of 
Compressed- Air  Treatment 
Respiration,  Artificial 
Resuscitation 
Stomach-Pump 
Cupping 


MEDICINE 


269 


Lcecliing 
Organotherapy 
Serum  Therapy 
Antitoxin 
Tubercuhn 
Hypnotism 

Hypodermic  Medication 
VI.  Diseases     of     the     Nose     and 
Thkoat,  Ear,  Eye,  Skin,  and 

THE       GeNITO-UkINARY       SYS- 
TEM. 

1.  Diseases  of  the  Nose  and  Throat: 

Rhinitis 

Epistaxis 

Ozena 

Polypus 

Throat,  Affections  of  the 

Larynx,  Diseases  of  the 

Laryngitis 

2.  Diseases  of  the  Ear: 

Ear 

Deafness 
Cerumen 
Otitis  Media 
Otorrlicea 
Otalgia 
S.  Diseases  of  the  Eye: 
Eye,  Diseases  of  the 
Blindness 
Ectropion 
Entropion 
Stye 

Trichiasis 
Conjunctivitis 
Ophthalmia 
Blepharitis 
Cornea 
Leucoma 
Staphyloma 
Iritis 
Glaucoma 
Cataract 
Retinitis 
Nyctalopia 


Color-Blindncss 
Optic  Neuritis 
Sight,  Defects  of 
Myopia 
Hyperopia 
Astigmatism 
Heterophoria 
Strabismus 

4.  Diseases  of  the  Skin: 

Acarus  Folliculorum 

Acne 

Alopecia 

Bromidrosis 

Corn 

Ecthyma 

Eczema 

Erythema 

Favus 

Hair 

Ichthyosis 

Impetigo 

Itch 

Leprosy 

Lichen 

Lupus 

Naevus 

Pemphigus 

Pityriasis 

Plica 

Prurigo 

Psoriasis 

Ringworm 

Rupia 

Seborrhoea 

Sycosis 

Tinea 

Vitiligo 

Wart 

Yaws 

5.  Diseases    of    the    Genito-Urinary 

System: 
Cystitis 

Calculus,  or  Stone 
Extravasation 


270 


MEDICINE 


Prostate  Gland 

GonorrhcEa 

Stricture 

Hydrocele 

Varicocele 

Syphilis 

Circumcision 

VII.  Materia  Medica. 

1.  General  Articles: 

Materia  Medica 
Pharmacopoeia 
Toxicology 
Prescription 

2.  Preparation  of  Drugs: 

Tincture 

Pill 

Liniment 

Lotion 

Plasters 

Infusion 

Extract 

Percolation 

Suppository 

Unguent 

Ointment 

Elixir 

3.  Classification  of  Drugs: 

Alterative 

Tonic 

Excitant 

Narcotics 

Sedatives 

Hypnotics 

Ana-sthetic 

Anodyne 

Antipyretic 

Febrifuge 

Expectorant 

Stimulants 

Gargle 

Emetics 

Anti-Emetic 

Bitters 


Antacids 
Carminatives 
Cholagogue 
Laxative 
Purgatives 
Cathartic 
Hydragogues 
Anthelmintic 
Diuretics 
Diaphoretics 
Anhidrotics 
Antispasmodic 
Astringents 
Demulcents 
Diluents 
Aphrodisiac 
Anaphrodisiacs 
Emmenagogues 
Oxytocics 
Irritant 

Rubefacients  ^ 

Refrigerants 
Depilatories 
Disinfectants 
Poison 
Antidote 
4.  Drugs: 
Quinine 

Mercury,  Medicinal  uses  of 
Iodine 
Iodides 
Bromides 
Arseftic 
Iron 

Colchicum 
Colchicine 
Salicylic  Acid 

Salicylates,  Medical  Uses  of  the 
Salicin 

Sulphur,  Medical  Uses  of 
Fern,  Male 
Kamala 
Santonin 
Goa  Powder  ' 


MEDICINE 


271 


Chrysarobin 
Phosphorus 

Alcohol,  Physiological  and  Poi- 
sonous Action  of 
Absinthe 
Hashish 
Opium 
Laudanum 
Paregoric 
Dover's  Powder 
Morphine 
Chloral 
Paraldehyde 
Hypnal 
Sulphonal 
Trional 
Urethane 
Hemlock 
Coniine 
Curari 
Chloroform 

Ether,  or  Di-Ethyl-Ether 
Nitrous  Oxide 
Cocaine 
Digitalis 
Nux  Vomica 
Strychnine 
Strophanthus 
Valerian 
Sparteine 
Aconite 
Hellebore 
Veratrine 
Tobacco 
Amyl  Nitrite 
Nitroglycerin 
Belladonna 
Atropine 
Homatropine 
Sal  Ammoniac 
Heroin 
Guaiacol 
Creosotol 
Calumba 


Sodium 

Lime,  or  Calcium  Oxide 

Apomorphine 

Asafoetida 

Senna 

Cascara  Sagrada 

Castor  Oil 

Blue  Pill 

Calomel 

Rhubarb 

Aloes 

Seidlitz  Powders 

Rochelle  Salt 

Epsom  Salt 

Jalap 

Colocynth 

Elatcrium 

Elaterin 

Bismuth 

Lead 

Lunar  Caustic 

Diuretin 

Copaiba 

Methylene  Blue 

Salol 

Jaborandi 

Iodoform 

Carbolic  Acid 

Sulphurous  Acid 

Antipyrine 

Phenacetine 

Acetanilid 

Matzoon 

Cod-Liver  Oil 

Lanolin 

Ichthyol 

VIII.  History  and  Biography. 
1.  History: 
Medicine 
Homoeopathy 

Eclectic  School  of  Medicine 
Anatomy 
Histology 


272 


MEDICINE 


Physiology 

Hygiene 

Pathology 

Disease,  Germ  Theory  of 

Therapeutics 

Surgery 

Surgery,  Military 

Obstetrics 

Dentistry 

2.  Biography: 

Hippocrates 

Galen,  or  Claudius  Galenus 
Aretasus 
Avicenna 

Linacre,  or  Lynaker,  Thomas 
Paracelsus 

Fracastoro,  Girolamo 
Fallopio,  or  Fallopius,  Gabriel 
Vesalius,  Andreas 
Eustachio,  Bartolommeo 
Pare,  Ambroise 

Fabricius,  or  Fabrizio,  Girolamo 
Harvey,  William 
Sydenham,  Thomas 
Pecquet,  Jean 
Graaf ,  Regnicr  de 
Willis,  Thomas 
Malpighi,  Marcello 
RadclifFe,  John 
Leeuwenhoek,  Antonius  van 
Bocrhaave,  Hermann 
Hoffmann,  Fricdrich 
Sloane,  Sir  Hans 
Morgagni,  Giovanni  Battista 
Swieten,  Gerard  van 
Haller,  Albrecht  von 
Pott,  Percival 
Brown,  John 
Cullcn,  William 
Hunter,  John 
Perkins,  Elisha 

Aucnbruggcr,     von,     or     Aucn- 
brugg,  Leopold 


Mesmer,  Franz,  or  Friedrich- 
Anton 

Bell,  John 

Jenner,  Edward 

fiaillie,  Matthew 

Pinel,  Philippe 

Post,  Wright 

Gall,  Franz  Joseph 

Soemmering,  Samuel  Thomas 
von 

Scarpa,  Antonio 

Spurzheim,  Johann  Kaspar 

Hufeland,  Christoph  Wilhelm 

Physick,  Philip  Syng 

Broussais,  Franfois  Joseph 
Victor 

Ling,  Pehr  Henrik 

Esquirol,  Jean  Etienne  Domi- 
nique 

Cooper,  Sir  Astley  Paston 

Larrey,  Dominique  Jean 

Bell,  Sir  Charles 

Hahnemann,  Samuel 

DiefFenbach,  Johann  Friedrich 

Wells,  Horace 

Morton,  Samuel  George 

Priessnitz,  Vincenz 

Beaumont,  William 

Orfila,  Matthieu  Joseph  Bona- 
venture 

Graves,  Robert  James 

Ennemoser,  Joseph 

Magendie,  Francois 

Warren,  John  Collins 

Amussat,  Jean  Zulema 

Hall,  Marshall 

Bright,  Richard 

Miiller,  Johannes 

Forbes,  Sir  John 

Francis,  John  Wakefield 

Wagner,  Rudolph 

Mott,  Valentine 

Qiiain,  Jones 

Lawrence,  Sir  William 


MEDICINE 


273 


Flourens,  Marie  Jean  Pierre 

Goodsir,  John 

Morton,  William  Thomas  Green 

Syme,  James 

Simpson,  Sir  James  Young 

Parrish,  Edward 

Holland,  Sir  Henry 

Winslow,  Forbes  (Benignus) 

Andral,  Gabriel 

Rokitansky,  Karl,  Baron 

Bernard,  Claude 

Peaslee,  Edmund  Randolph 

Long,  Crawford  W. 

Wood,  George  Bacon 

Taylor,  Alfred  Swaine 

Seguin,  Edouard  Onesimus 

Broca,  Paul 

Sims,  James  Marion 

Parker,  Willard 

Gross,  Samuel  D. 

Draper,  John  Christopher 

Post,  Alfred  Charles 

Flint,   Austin 

Kneeland,  Samuel 

Gray,  John  Perdue 

Quain,  Richard 

Langenbeck,  Bernhard  Rudolph 

von 
Parker,  Peter 
Sands,  Henry  Berton 
Ricord,  Philippe 
Taylor,  Isaac  Ebenezer 
Owen,  Sir  Richard 
Earle,  Pliny 
Mackenzie,  Sir  Morell 
Peters,  John  Charles 
Moleschott,  Jacob 
Charcot,  Jean  Martin 
Brown-Sequard,  Charles  Edouard 
Pasteur,  Louis 
Tuke,  Daniel  Hack 
Loomis,  Alfred  Lee 
Dubois-Reymond,  Emil  Heinrich 
Kneipp,  Sebastian 


Lusk,  William  Thompson 
Quain,  Sir  Richard 
Hart,  Ernest  Abraham 
Pepper,  William 
Seguin,  Edward  Constant 
Paget,  Sir  James 
Taylor,  Charles  Fayette 
Hammond,  William  Alexander 
Virchow,  Rudolph 
Kussmaul,  Adolph 
Thomas,  Theodore  Gaillard 
Davis,  Nathan  Smith 
Thompson,  Sir  Henry 
Esmarch,     Johannes     Friedrich 

August  von 
Guernsey,  Egbert 
Lister,  Sir  Joseph 
Emmet,  Thomas  Addis 
Mitchell,  Silas  Weir 
Jacobi,  Abraham 
Turner,  Sir  William 
Recklinghausen,  Friedrich  von 
Flint,  Austin,  Jr. 
Smith,  Andrew  Heermance 
Sternberg,  George  Miller 
Carpenter,  William  Benjamin 
Hansen,  Gerard  Henrik  Armauer 
Janeway,  Edward  Gamaliel 
King,  Albert  Freeman  Africanus 
Wood,  Horatio  Curtis 
Rayleigh,  John  William  Strutt, 

Baron 
Koch,  Robert 

Laveran,  Charles  Louis  Alphonse 
Morton,  William  James 
McBurney,  Charles 
Trudeau,  Edward  Livingston 
Morselli,  Enrico  Agostino 
Spitzka,  Edward  Charles 
Lorenz,  Adolph 
Starr,  Moses  Allen 
Horsley,  Victor  Alexander  Haden 
Peterson,  Frederick 
Manson,  Patrick 


fflljapt^r  2fi.    (BnmtB  anh  ^pnrts 


A 


LL  peoples  indulge  in  exercises  of  strength,  of  skill,  of  bodily  and 
mental  agility,  or  of  fortune,  and  often  these  mimic  the  more  serious 
pursuits  of  life,  or  consist  in  these  very  pursuits  indulged  in  for 
pleasurable  purposes  only. 


1.  The     capture     and     slaying 

of 

Canoe  and  Canoeing 

animals    has    remained    a    source 

of 

Yachting 

pleasure  long   after   it  has   ceased 

to 

Houseboating 

be  the  chief  business  of  life. 

See: 

(b) 

Skating 

(a)   Shooting 

Ice  Polo 

Archery 

Ice  Yachting 

Trapping 

Curling 

Coursing 

(c)   Snowshoeing 

Battue 

Skiing 

Tiger-hunting 

4. 

Useful  to  man  in  labors,  the  horse 

Deer-stalking 

is   his    great   companion   in   numerous 

Fox-hunting 

V 

sport 

:s.     See: 

Falconry 

Horsemanship 

Game  Laws 

Coaching 

Game  Preserves 

Driving 

(b)  Angling 

Trotting 

Bait-fishing 

Pacing 

Salmon-fishing 

Horse-racing 

Trolling 

Stud-book 

Trout-fishing 

Derby  Day 

Fly-Casting 

Steeple  chasing 

2.  The    mimicry    of    war 

is 

also 

Polo 

found    in    contests    between 

men 

or 

Hippodrome 

animals,  or  men  and  animals. 

See: 

5. 

Of  the  instruments  entering  into 

Pugilism 

popi: 

liar    games,    the    ball,    in    various 

Boxing 

shapes,  is  by  far  the  most  common  and 

Wrestling 

the  most  widespread.     See: 

Fencing 

Bowls 

Cock-fighting 

Baseball 

Bear-baiting 

Indoor   Baseball 

Bull-fight 

Cricket 

3.  Water,  both  in  its  common  state 

Golf 

and  in  the  forms  of  ice  and  snow. 

fur- 

Croquet 

nishes  many  forms  of  sport 

to  primi- 

Hockey 

tive  and  civilized  man.     See: 

La  Crosse 

(a)   Swimming 

Polo 

Rowing 

Football 

274 


GAMES 

AND    SPORTS                            275 

Basketball 

Craps 

Handball 

(0 

Roulette 

Pelota 

' 

Racquets 

7. 

For  the  great  intellectual  games 

Tennis 

par  ( 

2xcellcnce,  see: 

Lawn  Tennis 

Chess 

Court  Tennis 

Checkers 

Ping-Pong 

and  for  cognate  games: 

Billiards 

Backgammon 

Bagatelle 

Dominoes 

6.  In  games  of  chance,  the  card  and 

8. 

Miscellaneous  sports  and  games: 

the  die  in  varying  forms  are  univers- 

Cycling 

ally  found.    In  the  case  of  cards, 

how- 

Mountain  Climbing 

ever,    chance    often    plays    the    minor 

Coasting 

part  and  the  game  assumes  a  hi 

ighly 

Toboggan 

intellectual  character.     See: 

Shufflcboard 

(o)   Cards 

Quoits 

Whist 

9. 

The    general    subject    is    treated 

Bridge 

under : 

Pinochle 

Athletics 

Skat 

Gymnastics 

Ecarte 

Physical  Culture 

Piquet 

Amateur 

Bezique 

Handicapping 

Cribbage 

Sports,  Book  of 

Euchre 

Games,  Ancient 

Solitaire 

Gymkhana 

Poker 

Olympic  Games 

Baccarat 

Pythian  Games 

Rouge  et  Nolr 

Nemea 

Fan-tan 

Gladiator 

(b)  Dice 

Circus 

Hazard 

Acrobat 

mm 


^1^^^ 


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